Web of debt : the shocking truth about our money system--the sleight of hand that has trapped us in debt and how we can break free

1. Web of debt : the shocking truth about our money system--the sleight of hand that has trapped us in debt and how we can break free

Web of debt : the shocking truth about our money system--the sleight of hand that has trapped us in debt and how we can break free

Brown, Ellen Hodgson

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WEB OF DEBT

The Shocking TruthAbout Our Money Systemand How We Can Break Free

Third EditionRevised and Expanded

ELLEN HODGSON BROWN, J.D.

Third Millennium PressBaton Rouge, Louisiana

Copyright © 2007, 2008Ellen Hodgson Brown

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmittedin any form or by means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, orotherwise without the prior written permission of the publisher.

First edition July 2007ISBN 978-0-9795608-0-4

Second edition revised and updated February 2008ISBN 978-0-9795608-1-1Third edition revised and expanded March 2008ISBN 978-0-9795608-2-8

Cover art by David Dees

Library of Congress Control Number 2008900963Includes bibliographic references, glossary and index.Subject headings:

Banks and banking - United States.

Debt - United States.

Developing countries - Economic policy.

Federal Reserve banks - History.

Financial crises — United States.

Imperialism - History - 20th century.

Greenbacks — History.

Monetary policy.

Money - History.

United States — Economic policy.

Published by Third Millennium PressBaton Rouge, Louisianawww.webofdebt.com800-891-0390Printed in Malaysia

ISBN 978-0-9795608-2-8

ii

CONTENTS

Acknowledgments ix

FOREWORD by Reed Simpson, Banker and Developer xi

INTRODUCTION: Captured by the Debt Spider 1

Section I THE YELLOW BRICK ROAD:

FROM GOLD TO FEDERAL RESERVE NOTES 9

Chapter

1 Lessons from The Wizard of Oz 11

2 Behind the Curtain: The Federal Reserve

and the Federal Debt 23

3 Experiments in Utopia: Colonial Paper Money

as Legal Tender 35

4 How the Government Was Persuaded to Borrow

Its Own Money 47

5 From Matriarchies of Abundance to

Patriarchies of Debt 57

6 Pulling the Strings of the King:

The Moneylenders Take England 65

7 While Congress Dozes in the Poppy Fields:

Jefferson and Jackson Sound the Alarm 75

8 Scarecrow with a Brain:

Lincoln Foils the Bankers 83

9 Lincoln Loses the Battle with the Masters

of European Finance 91

10 The Great Humbug: The Gold Standard

and the Straw Man of Inflation 97

Section II THE BANKERS CAPTURE

THE MONEY MACHINE 105

11 No Place Like Home:

Fighting for the Family Farm 107

12 Talking Heads and Invisible Hands:

The Secret Government 115

13 Witches' Coven: The Jekyll Island Affair

and the Federal Reserve Act of 1913 123

14 Harnessing the Lion: The Federal Income Tax 133

15 Reaping the Whirlwind: The Great Depression 141

16 Oiling the Rusted Joints of the Economy:

Roosevelt, Keynes and the New Deal 151

17 Wright Patman Exposes the Money Machine 161

18 A Look Inside the Fed's Playbook:

"Modern Money Mechanics" 171

19 Bear Raids and Short Sales:

Devouring Capital Markets 181

20 Hedge Funds and Derivatives:

A Horse of a Different Color 191

Section III ENSLAVED BY DEBT:THE BANKERS' NET

SPREADS OVER THE GLOBE 201

21 Goodbye Yellow Brick Road:

From Gold Reserves to Petrodollars 203

22 The Tequila Trap: The Real Story

Behind the Illegal Alien Invasion 215

23 Freeing the Yellow Winkies:

The Greenback System Flourishes Abroad 223

24 Sneering at Doom:

Germany Finances a War Without Money 233

25 Another Look at the Inflation Humbug:

Some "Textbook" Hyperinflations Revisited 239

26 Poppy Fields, Opium Wars and Asian Tigers 249

27 Waking the Sleeping Giant:

Lincoln's Greenback System Comes to China 257

28 Recovering the Jewel of the British Empire:

A People's Movement Takes Back India 265

Section IV THE DEBT SPIDER CAPTURES AMERICA 275

29 Breaking the Back of the Tin Man:

Debt Serfdom for American Workers 277

30 The Lure in the Consumer Debt Trap:

The Illusion of Home Ownership 285

31 The Perfect Financial Storm 293

32 In the Eye of the Cyclone: How the Derivatives

Crisis Has Gridlocked the Banking System 301

33 Maintaining the Illusion:

Rigging Financial Markets 313

34 Meltdown: The Secret Bankruptcy of the Banks 325

Section V THE MAGIC SLIPPERS:

TAKING BACK THE MONEY POWER 335

35 Stepping from Scarcity

into Technicolor Abundance 337

36 The Community Currency Movement:Sidestepping the Debt Web

with "Parallel" Currencies 347

37 The Money Question:

Goldbugs and Greenbackers Debate 357

38 The Federal Debt:

A Case of Disorganized Thinking 367

39 Liquidating the Federal Debt

Without Causing Inflation 375

40 "Helicopter" Money:

The Fed's New Hot Air Balloon 383

Section VI VANQUISHING THE DEBT SPIDER:A BANKING SYSTEM

THAT SERVES THE PEOPLE 391

41 Restoring National Sovereignty

with a Truly National Banking System 393

42 The Question of Interest: Ben Franklin Solves

the Impossible Contract Problem 407

43 Bailout, Buyout, or Corporate Takeover?

Beating the Robber Barons at Their Own Game 417

44 The Quick Fix: Government That Pays for Itself 425

45 Government with Heart:

Solving the Problem of Third World Debt 435

46 Building a Bridge:

Toward a New Bretton Woods 441

47 Over the Rainbow:

Government Without Taxes or Debt 451

Afterword THE COLLAPSE OF A 300 YEAR

PONZI SCHEME 463

Postscript: February 2008 - THE BUBBLE BURSTS 465

Glossary 479

Selected Bibliography of Books and Suggested Reading 487

Notes 489

Index 521

TABLE OF CHARTS

Compound interest at 6% over 50 years 32

Inflation from 1950 to 2007 103

Income of top 1% versus bottom 80% 279

Household debt, 1957 to 2006 286

M3 money stock, 1909 to 2006 307

Price of gold, 1975 to 2007 346

Federal government debt, 1950 to 2015 368

Federal government debt per person, 1929 to 2007 369

Stock market (S & P 500), 1960 to 2006 381

vii

AUTHOR'S NOTETO THIRD REVISED EDITION

Somebody once said works of art are never finished, justrelinquished to the world. This research is a work in progress, begunwhen I was a law student in the 1970s but was limited to the materialavailable in the library and in journals. With the explosion ofinformation in the Internet Age, the missing pieces have fallen intoplace; but while I have been more than five years assembling them, Ihave still found errors, quotes that turned out to be apocryphal, andthings needing to be updated. I have heavily footnoted my sourcesand quoted extensively, in hopes of aiding the next generation ofresearchers who might be inspired to carry on the pursuit.

In the half year since this book was first published in July 2007,the banking system has been fracturing rapidly, warranting this 2008revision and postscript. While I was at it, I refined the prose, eliminatederrors, and revised and expanded the solutions section concludingthe book. For future updates, see webofdebt.com/articles.

Ellen Brown, February 2008

To my grandmother Ella Mae Hodgson,who died in difficult circumstancesduring the Great Depression;and to my parents Al and Genny Hodgson,who lived through it.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This book has been heavily shaped by the feedback of many astutefriends, who have puzzled over the concepts and helped me to makethem easy to understand; and of a number of experts who have helpedme to understand them myself. Georgia Wooldridge advised onstructural design with an architect's eye. Bob Silverstein looked at thematerial with a sharp agent's eye. Gene Harter and Lance Haddixreviewed it from a banker's perspective. My children Jeff and JamieBrown challenged it as graduate students in economics. Paul Hodgsongave the libertarian perspective. Lawrence Bologna and Don Brucedid detailed editings. Duane Thorin brought a fresh critical approachto the material; and Toni Decker, who purports to know nothing aboutbanking, spotted issues Alan Greenspan might have missed. Importantinsights were also added by Nancy Batchelder, Eddy Taylor, RichardMiles, Bruce Baumrucker, Paul Hunt, Bob Poteat, Nancy O'Hara, TomNead, David Edgerton and Bonnie Lange. Among the experts, EdGriffin, Ben Gisin, and Reed Simpson clarified the mysteries of"fractional reserve" banking; Sergio Lub, Tom Greco, Carol Brouilletand Bernard Lietaer illuminated community currency concepts; andStephen Zarlenga did exhaustive research on the Greenback solution.Valuable insights for revisions were provided by Alistair McConnachie,Peter Challen, Rodney Shakespeare, Frank Taylor, Glen Martin andRoberta Kelly. Cordell Svengalis was responsible for formatting,Charles Montgomery experimented with graphics, and David Deescaptured the theme in a brilliant cover. Cliff Brown made this bookpossible. Acknowledgment is also due to Michael Hodges andbabylontoday.com for the charts, and to all those researchers whouncovered the puzzle pieces assembled here, who are liberally citedand quoted hereafter. Thanks!

X

FOREWORDby

REED SIMPSON, M.Sc,Banker and Developer

I have been a banker for most of my career, and I can report thateven most bankers are not aware of what goes on behind closed doorsat the top of their field. Bankers tend to their own corner of the bank-ing business, without seeing the big picture or the ramifications of thewhole system they are helping to perpetuate. I am more familiar thanmost with the issues raised in Ellen Brown's book Web of Debt, and Istill found it to be an eye-opener, a remarkable window into what isreally going on.

The process by which money comes into existence is thoroughlymisunderstood, and for good reason: it has been the focus of a highlysophisticated and long-term disinformation campaign that permeatesacademia, media, and publishing. The complexity of the subject hasbeen intentionally exploited to keep its mysteries hidden. Henry Fordsaid it best: "It is well that the people of the nation do not understand ourbanking and monetary system, for if they did, I believe there would be arevolution before tomorrow morning."

In banking schools and universities, I was drilled in the technologyof money and banking, clearing houses, the Federal Reserve System,money creation through the multiplier effect, and the peculiar role ofthe commercial banker as the guardian of the public treasure. Thisidealized vision contrasted sharply with what I saw as I worked inthe U.S. banking sector. Although there are many financially soundbanks that follow the highest ethical standards, corruption is alsorampant that flies in the face of the stated ethical objectives of theAmerican Bankers Association and the guidelines of the FDIC, theComptroller of the Currency, and other regulators. This tendency isparticularly evident in the large money center banks, in one of whichI worked.

xi

In my experience, in fact, the chief source of bank robbery is notmasked men looting tellers' cash tills but the blatant abuse of theextension of credit by white collar criminals. A common practice isfor loan officers to ignore the long-term risk of loans and approvethose loan transactions with the highest fees and interest paidimmediately - income which can be distributed to the principalexecutives of the bank. Such distribution is buried within the bank'sowner/manager compensation and is distributed to the principalowners as dividends and stock options. That helps explain why, inmy home state of Kansas, a major bank in Topeka was run intobankruptcy after its chairman entered into a development andconstruction loan involving a mortgaged 5,000 acre residentialdevelopment tract in the "exurbs" far outside of Houston, Texas. Thedevelopment included curbs, gutters, pavement, street lighting, water,sewer, electricity - everything but homes and families! If the loan hadbeen metered out in small phases to match market absorption, thechairman of that once-fine institution would not have been able todisburse to himself and his friends the enormous up-front loan feesand interest owing to that specific transaction, or to the many loanshe made just like it. During the 1980s, developers from across thecountry beat a path to sleepy Topeka and other areas sporting similarfinancial institutions, just to have a chance to dance with these corruptlenders. The managers and developers got rich, leaving the banks'shareholders and the taxpayers to pay the bill.

These are just individual instances of corruption, but they indicatea mind-set to exploit and a system that can be exploited. Ellen Brown'sbook focuses on a more fundamental fraud in the banking system -the creation and control of money itself by private bankers, in a debt-money system that returns a steady profit in the form of interest to thedebt-money producers, saddling the nation with a growing mountainof unnecessary and impossible-to-repay debt. The fact that moneycreation is nearly everywhere a private affair is largely unknown today,but the issue is not new. The control of the money system by privateinterests was known to many of our earlier leaders, as shown in anumber of quotes reprinted in this book, including these:

The real truth of the matter is, as you and I know, that a financialelement in the large centers has owned the Government ever since thedays of Andrew Jackson.

— President Franklin Delano Roosevelt, November 23, 1933,in a letter to Colonel Edward Mandell House

xii

Some people think the Federal Reserve Banks are U.S. governmentinstitutions. They are not . . . they are private credit monopolieswhich prey upon the people of the U.S. for the benefit of themselvesand their foreign and domestic swindlers, and rich and predatorymoney lenders. The sack of the United States by the Fed is the greatestcrime in history. Every effort has been made by the Fed to conceal itspowers, but the truth is the Fed has usurped the government. Itcontrols everything here and it controls all our foreign relations. Itmakes and breaks governments at will.

— Congressman Charles McFadden, Chairman, HouseBanking and Currency Committee, June 10, 1932

Web of Debt gives a blow by blow account of how a network ofprivate bankers has taken over the creation and control of theinternational money system and what they are doing with that control.Credible evidence is presented of a world power elite intent on gainingabsolute control over the planet and its natural resources, includingits subservient "human resources" or "human capital." The lifebloodof this power elite is money, and its weapon is fear. The whole ofcivilization and all of its systems hang on this fulcrum of the moneypower. In private hands, where it is now, it can be used to enslavenations and ensure perpetual wars and bondage. Internationally, thebanksters and their governmental partners use these fraudulenteconomic tools to weaken or defeat opponents without a shot beingfired. Witness the recent East Asian financial crisis of 1997 and theRussian ruble collapse of 1998. Economic means have long been usedto spark wars, as a pretext and prelude for the money power to stockand restock the armaments and infrastructure of both sides.

Brown's book is thus about more than just monetary theory andreform. By exposing the present unsustainable situation, it is a firststep toward loosening the malign grip on the world held by a verysmall but powerful financial faction. The book can serve to spark anopen dialogue concerning the most important topic of our monetarysystem, one that is practically off limits today in conventional economiccircles due to intimidation and fear of the consequences an honestdiscourse might bring. Brown is not afraid of stepping on the blackpatent leather wingtips of the money power and their academiceconomist servants. Her book is a raised clenched fist of defiance andtruth smashing through their finely spun web of disinformation,distortion, deceit, and boldfaced lies concerning money, banking, and

economics. It exposes the covert financial enemy that has gotten insidethe gates of our Troy, making it our first line of defense against theunrestricted asymmetrical warfare which is presently directed againstthe people of America and the world.

This book not only exposes the problem but outlines a sound solutionfor the ever-increasing debt and other monetary woes of the nationand the world. It shows that ending the debt-money fractional reservebanking system and returning to an honest debt-free monetary systemcould provide Americans with a future that is prosperous beyond ourimagining. An editorial directed against Lincoln's debt-freeGreenbacks, attributed to The London Times, said it all:

If that mischievous financial policy which had its origin in the NorthAmerican Republic during the late war in that country, should becomeindurated down to a fixture, then that Government will furnish itsown money without cost. It will pay off its debts and be without debt.It will become prosperous beyond precedent in the history of thecivilized governments of the world. The brains and wealth of allcountries will go to North America. That government must bedestroyed or it will destroy every monarchy on the globe.

- REED SIMPSON, M.Sc, Overland Park, Kansas

American Bankers Association Graduate School of BankingLondon School of Economics, Graduate School of EconomicsUniversity of Kansas Graduate School of Architecture

- November 2006

xiv

IntroductionCAPTURED BY THE DEBT SPIDER

Through a network of anonymous financial spider webbing only ahandful of global King Bankers own and control it all. . . . Everybody,people, enterprise, State and foreign countries, all have become slaveschained to the Banker's credit ropes.

— Hans Schicht, "The Death of Banking" (February 2005)1

President Andrew Jackson called the banking cartel "a hydra-headed monster eating the flesh of the common man." NewYork Mayor John Hylan, writing in the 1920s, called it a "giant octopus"that "seizes in its long and powerful tentacles our executive officers,our legislative bodies, our schools, our courts, our newspapers, andevery agency created for the public protection." The debt spider hasdevoured farms, homes and whole countries that have become trappedin its web.

In "The Death of Banking," financial commentator Hans Schichtstates that he had an opportunity in his career to observe the wizardsof finance as an insider at close range. Their game, he says, has gottenso centralized and concentrated that the greater part of U.S. bankingand enterprise is now under the control of a small inner circle of men.He calls the game "spider webbing." Its rules include:

• Making any concentration of wealth invisible.

• Exercising control through "leverage" - mergers, takeovers, chainshare holdings where one company holds shares of othercompanies, conditions annexed to loans, and so forth.

• Exercising tight personal management and control, with aminimum of insiders and front-men who themselves have onlypartial knowledge of the game.

Dr. Carroll Quigley was a writer and professor of history atGeorgetown University, where he was President Bill Clinton's mentor.

1

Professor Quigley wrote from personal knowledge of an elite clique ofglobal financiers bent on controlling the world. Their aim, he said,was "nothing less than to create a world system of financial controlin private hands able to dominate the political system of each countryand the economy of the world as a whole." This system was "to becontrolled in a feudalist fashion by the central banks of the worldacting in concert, by secret agreements."2 He called this clique simplythe "international bankers." Their essence was not race, religion ornationality but was just a passion for control over other humans. Thekey to their success was that they would control and manipulate the moneysystem of a nation while letting it appear to be controlled by the government.

The international bankers have succeeded in doing more than justcontrolling the money supply. Today they actually create the moneysupply, while making it appear to be created by the government. Thisdevious scheme was revealed by Sir Josiah Stamp, director of the Bankof England and the second richest man in Britain in the 1920s. Speak-ing at the University of Texas in 1927, he dropped this bombshell:

The modern banking system manufactures money out of nothing.The process is perhaps the most astounding piece of sleight ofhand that was ever invented. Banking was conceived in inequityand born in sin .... Bankers own the earth. Take it away fromthem but leave them the power to create money, and, with aflick of a pen, they will create enough money to buy it backagain. . . . Take this great power away from them and all greatfortunes like mine will disappear, for then this would be a betterand happier world to live in. . . . But, if you want to continue to bethe slaves of bankers and pay the cost of your own slavery, then letbankers continue to create money and control credit?

Professor Henry C. K. Liu is an economist who graduated fromHarvard and chaired a graduate department at UCLA before becom-ing an investment adviser for developing countries. He calls the cur-rent monetary scheme a "cruel hoax." When we wake up to that fact,he says, our entire economic world view will need to be reordered,"just as physics was subject to reordering when man's world viewchanged with the realization that the earth is not stationary nor is itthe center of the universe."4 The hoax is that there is virtually no"real" money in the system, only debts. Except for coins, which areissued by the government and make up only about one one-thousandthof the money supply, the entire U.S. money supply now consists of debt toprivate banks, for money they created with accounting entries on their books.

2

It is all done by sleight of hand; and like a magician's trick, we have tosee it many times before we realize what is going on. But when wedo, it changes everything. All of history has to be rewritten.

The following chapters track the web of deceit that has engulfedus in debt, and present a simple solution that could make the countrysolvent once again. It is not a new solution but dates back to theConstitution: the power to create money needs to be returned to thegovernment and the people it represents. The federal debt could bepaid, income taxes could be eliminated, and social programs could beexpanded; and this could all be done without imposing austeritymeasures on the people or sparking runaway inflation. Utopian asthat may sound, it represents the thinking of some of America's brightestand best, historical and contemporary, including Abraham Lincoln,Thomas Jefferson and Benjamin Franklin. Among other arresting factsexplored in this book are that:

• The "Federal" Reserve is not actually federal. It is a privatecorporation owned by a consortium of very large multinationalbanks. (Chapter 13.)

• Except for coins, the government does not create money. Dollarbills (Federal Reserve Notes) are created by the private FederalReserve, which lends them to the government. (Chapter 2.)

• Tangible currency (coins and dollar bills) together make up lessthan 3 percent of the U.S. money supply. The other 97 percentexists only as data entries on computer screens, and all of this moneywas created by banks in the form of loans. (Chapters 2 and 17.)

• The money that banks lend is not recycled from pre-existingdeposits. It is new money, which did not exist until it was lent.(Chapters 17 and 18.)

• Thirty percent of the money created by banks with accountingentries is invested for their own accounts. (Chapter 18.)

• The American banking system, which at one time extendedproductive loans to agriculture and industry, has today become agiant betting machine. By December 2007, an estimated $682 trillionwere riding on complex high-risk bets known as derivatives — 10times the annual output of the entire world economy. These betsare funded by big U.S. banks and are made largely with borrowedmoney created on a computer screen. Derivatives can be and havebeen used to manipulate markets, loot businesses, and destroycompetitor economies. (Chapters 20 and 32.)

3

• The U.S. federal debt has not been paid off since the days of AndrewJackson. Only the interest gets paid, while the principal portioncontinues to grow. (Chapter 2.)

• The federal income tax was instituted specifically to coercetaxpayers to pay the interest due to the banks on the federal debt.If the money supply had been created by the government ratherthan borrowed from banks that created it, the income tax wouldhave been unnecessary. (Chapters 13 and 43.)

• The interest alone on the federal debt will soon be more than thetaxpayers can afford to pay. When we can't pay, the FederalReserve's debt-based dollar system will collapse. (Chapter 29.)

• Contrary to popular belief, creeping inflation is not caused by thegovernment irresponsibly printing dollars. It is caused by banksexpanding the money supply with loans. (Chapter 10.)

• Most of the runaway inflation seen in "banana republics" has beencaused, not by national governments over-printing money, but byglobal institutional speculators attacking local currencies anddevaluing them on international markets. (Chapter 25.)

• The same sort of speculative devaluation could happen to the U.S.dollar if international investors were to abandon it as a global"reserve" currency, something they are now threatening to do inretaliation for what they perceive to be American economicimperialism. (Chapters 29 and 37.)

• There is a way out of this morass. The early American colonistsfound it, and so did Abraham Lincoln and some other nationalleaders: the government can take back the money-issuing powerfrom the banks. (Chapters 8 and 24.)

The bankers' Federal Reserve Notes and the government's coinsrepresent two separate money systems that have been competing fordominance throughout recorded history. At one time, the right toissue money was the sovereign right of the king; but that right gotusurped by private moneylenders. Today the sovereigns are the people,and the coins that make up less than one one-thousandth of the moneysupply are all that are left of our sovereign money. Many nationshave successfully issued their own money, at least for a time; but thebankers' debt-money has generally infiltrated the system and takenover in the end. These concepts are so foreign to what we have beentaught that it can be hard to wrap our minds around them, but thefacts have been substantiated by many reliable authorities. To cite afew -

4

Robert H. Hemphill, Credit Manager of the Federal Reserve Bankof Atlanta, wrote in 1934:

We are completely dependent on the commercial Banks. Someonehas to borrow every dollar we have in circulation, cash or credit. Ifthe Banks create ample synthetic money we are prosperous; ifnot, we starve. We are absolutely without a permanent moneysystem. When one gets a complete grasp of the picture, the tragicabsurdity of our hopeless position is almost incredible, but thereit is. It is the most important subject intelligent persons caninvestigate and reflect upon.5

Graham Towers, Governor of the Bank of Canada from 1935 to1955, acknowledged:

Banks create money. That is what they are for. . . . Themanufacturing process to make money consists of making anentry in a book. That is all. . . . Each and every time a Bank makesa loan . . . new Bank credit is created — brand new money.6

Robert B. Anderson, Secretary of the Treasury under Eisenhower,said in an interview reported in the August 31, 1959 issue of U.S.News and World Report:

[W]hen a bank makes a loan, it simply adds to the borrower'sdeposit account in the bank by the amount of the loan. The

money is not taken from anyone else's deposit; it was not previouslypaid in to the bank by anyone. It's new money, created by the bankfor the use of the borrower.

Michel Chossudovsky, Professor of Economics at the University ofOttawa, wrote during the Asian currency crisis of 1998:

[P]rivately held money reserves in the hands of "institutionalspeculators" far exceed the limited capabilities of the World'scentral banks. The latter acting individually or collectively areno longer able to fight the tide of speculative activity. Monetarypolicy is in the hands of private creditors who have the ability tofreeze State budgets, paralyse the payments process, thwart the regulardisbursement of wages to millions of workers (as in the former SovietUnion) and precipitate the collapse of production and socialprogrammes.7

Today, Federal Reserve Notes and U.S. dollar loans dominate theeconomy of the world; but this international currency is not moneyissued by the American people or their government. It is money createdand lent by a private cartel of international bankers, and this cartel

5

has the United States itself hopelessly entangled in a web of debt. By2006, combined personal, corporate and federal debt in the UnitedStates had reached a staggering 44 trillion dollars - four times thecollective national income, or $147,312 for every man, woman andchild in the country.8 The United States is legally bankrupt, defined inthe dictionary as being unable to pay one's debts, being insolvent, orhaving liabilities in excess of a reasonable market value of assets held.By October 2006, the debt of the U.S. government had hit a breath-taking $8.5 trillion. Local, state and national governments are all soheavily in debt that they have been forced to sell off public assets tosatisfy creditors. Crowded schools, crowded roads, and cutbacks inpublic transportation are eroding the quality of American life. A 2005report by the American Society of Civil Engineers gave the nation'sinfrastructure an overall grade of D, including its roads, bridges,drinking water systems and other public works. "Americans arespending more time stuck in traffic and less time at home with theirfamilies," said the group's president. "We need to establish acomprehensive, long-term infrastructure plan."9 We need to but wecan't, because government at every level is broke.

If governments everywhere are in debt, who are they in debt to?The answer is that they are in debt to private banks. The "cruel hoax"is that governments are in debt for money created on a computerscreen, money they could have created themselves.

Money in the Land of Oz

The vast power acquired through this sleight of hand by a smallclique of men pulling the strings of government behind the scenes evokesimages from The Wizard of Oz, a classic American fairytale that hasbecome a rich source of imagery for financial commentators. In a2002 article titled "Who Controls the Federal Reserve System?", VictorThorn wrote:

In essence, money has become nothing more than illusion — anelectronic figure or amount on a computer screen. ... As timegoes on, we have an increasing tendency toward being suckedinto this Wizard of Oz vortex of unreality [by] magician-prieststhat use the illusion of money as their control device.12

Christopher Mark wrote in a series called "The Grand Deception":

Welcome to the world of the International Banker, who like thefamous film, The Wizard of Oz, stands behind the curtain of

6

Web of Debt

orchestrated national and international policymakers and so-called elected leaders.10

The late Murray Rothbard, an economist of the classical AustrianSchool, wrote:

Money and banking have been made to appear as mysteriousand arcane processes that must be guided and operated by atechnocratic elite. They are nothing of the sort. In money, evenmore than the rest of our affairs, we have been tricked by amalignant Wizard of Oz.11

James Galbraith wrote in The New American Prospect:

We are left . . . with the thought that the Federal Reserve Boarddoes not know what it is doing. This is the "Wizard of Oz"theory, in which we pull away the curtains only to find an oldman with a wrinkled face, playing with lights and loudspeakers.13

The analogies to The Wizard of Oz work for a reason. Accordingto later commentators, the tale was actually written as a monetaryallegory, at a time when the "money question" was a key issue inAmerican politics. In the 1890s, politicians were still hotly debatingwho should create the nation's money and what it should consist of.Should it be created by the government, with full accountability to thepeople? Or should it be created by private banks behind closed doors,for the banks' own private ends?

William Jennings Bryan, the Populist candidate for President in1896 and again in 1900, mounted the last serious challenge to theright of private bankers to create the national money supply. Accordingto the commentators, Bryan was represented in Frank Baum's 1900book The Wonderful Wizard of Oz by the Cowardly Lion. The Lionfinally proved he was the King of Beasts by decapitating a giant spiderthat was terrorizing everyone in the forest. The giant spider Bryanchallenged at the turn of the twentieth century was the Morgan/Rockefeller banking cartel, which was bent on usurping the power tocreate money from the people and their representative government.

Before World War I, two opposing systems of political economycompeted for dominance in the United States. One operated out ofWall Street, the New York financial district that came to be the symbolof American finance. Its most important address was 23 Wall Street,known as the "House of Morgan." J. P. Morgan was an agent ofpowerful British banking interests. The Wizards of Wall Street andthe Old World bankers pulling their strings sought to establish a national

7

Introduction

currency that was based on the "gold standard," one created privatelyby the financial elite who controlled the gold. The other system datedback to Benjamin Franklin and operated out of Philadelphia, thecountry's first capital, where the Constitutional Convention was heldand Franklin's "Society for Political Inquiries" planned theindustrialization and public works that would free the new republicfrom economic slavery to England.14 The Philadelphia faction favoreda bank on the model established in provincial Pennsylvania, where astate loan office issued and lent money, collected the interest, andreturned it to the provincial government to be used in place of taxes.President Abraham Lincoln returned to the colonial system ofgovernment-issued money during the Civil War; but he wasassassinated, and the bankers reclaimed control of the money machine.The silent coup of the Wall Street faction culminated with the passageof the Federal Reserve Act in 1913, something they achieved bymisleading Bryan and other wary Congressmen into thinking theFederal Reserve was actually federal.

Today the debate over who should create the national moneysupply is rarely heard, mainly because few people even realize it is anissue. Politicians and economists, along with everybody else, simplyassume that money is created by the government, and that the"inflation" everybody complains about is caused by an out-of-controlgovernment running the dollar printing presses. The puppeteersworking the money machine were more visible in the 1890s than theyare today, largely because they had not yet succeeded in buying upthe media and cornering public opinion.

Economics is a dry and forbidding subject that has been madeintentionally complex by banking interests intent on concealing whatis really going on. It is a subject that sorely needs lightening up, withimagery, metaphors, characters and a plot; so before we get into theponderous details of the modern system of money-based-on-debt, we'lltake an excursion back to a simpler time, when the money issues weremore obvious and were still a burning topic of discussion. The plotline for The Wizard of Oz has been traced to the first-ever march onWashington, led by an obscure Ohio businessman who sought topersuade Congress to return to Lincoln's system of government-issuedmoney in 1894. Besides sparking a century of protest marches andthe country's most famous fairytale, this little-known visionary andthe band of unemployed men he led may actually have had the solutionto the whole money problem, then and now ....

8

Section I

THE YELLOW BRICK ROAD:

FROM GOLD TOFEDERAL RESERVE NOTES

"Did you bring your broomstick?""No, I'm afraid I didn't."

"Then you'll have to walk. . . . It's always best to start atthe beginning . . . all you do is follow the Yellow Brick Road.'

- The Wizard of Oz (1939 film)

Chapter 1LESSONS FROMTHE WIZARD OF OZ

"The great Oz has spoken! Pay no attention to that manbehind the curtain! I am the great and powerful Wizard of Oz!"

Tn refreshing contrast to the impenetrable writings of econo--Lmists, the classic fairytale The Wizard of Oz has delighted youngand old for over a century. It was first published by L. Frank Baum asThe Wonderful Wizard of Oz in 1900. In 1939, it was made into a hitHollywood movie starring Judy Garland, and later it was made intothe popular stage play The Wiz. Few of the millions who have en-joyed this charming tale have suspected that its imagery was drawnfrom that most obscure and tedious of subjects, banking and finance.Fewer still have suspected that the real-life folk heroes who inspiredits plot may actually have had the answer to the financial crisis facingthe country today!

The economic allusions in Baum's tale were first observed in 1964by a schoolteacher named Henry Littlefield, who called the story "aparable on Populism," referring to the People's Party movement chal-lenging the banking monopoly in the late nineteenth century.1 Otheranalysts later picked up the theme. Economist Hugh Rockoff, writingin the Tournal of Political Economy in 1990, called the tale a "mon-etary allegory."2 Professor Tim Ziaukas, writing in 1998, stated:

"The Wizard of Oz" . . . was written at a time when Americansociety was consumed by the debate over the "financialquestion," that is, the creation and circulation of money. . . . Thecharacters of "The Wizard of Oz" represented those deeplyinvolved in the debate: the Scarecrow as the farmers, the TinWoodman as the industrial workers, the Lion as silver advocateWilliam Jennings Bryan and Dorothy as the archetypal Americangirl.3

11

The Wizard of Oz has been called "the first truly Americanfairytale."4 The Germans established the national fairytale traditionwith Grimm's Fairy Tales, a collection of popular folklore gathered bythe Brothers Grimm specifically to reflect German populist traditionsand national values.5 Baum's book did the same thing for the Americanpopulist (or people's) tradition. It was all about people power,manifesting your dreams, finding what you wanted in your ownbackyard. According to Littlefield, the march of Dorothy and herfriends to the Emerald City to petition the Wizard of Oz for help waspatterned after the 1894 march from Ohio to Washington of an"Industrial Army" led by Jacob Coxey, urging Congress to return tothe system of debt-free government-issued Grenbacks initiated byAbraham Lincoln. The march of Coxey's Army on Washington begana long tradition of people taking to the streets in peaceful protest whenthere seemed no other way to voice their appeals. As LawrenceGoodwin, author of The Populist Moment, described the nineteenthcentury movement to change the money system:

[T]here was once a time in history when people acted. . . .[F]armers were trapped in debt. They were the most oppressedof Americans, they experimented with cooperative purchasingand marketing, they tried to find their own way out of the stranglehold of debt to merchants, but none of this could work if theycouldn't get capital. So they had to turn to politics, and they

had to organize themselves into a party [T]he populists didn't

just organize a political party, they made a movement. Theyhad picnics and parties and newsletters and classes and courses,and they taught themselves, and they taught each other, andthey became a group of people with a sense of purpose, a groupof people with courage, a group of people with dignity.6

Like the Populists, Dorothy and her troop discovered that theyhad the power to solve their own problems and achieve their owndreams. The Scarecrow in search of a brain, the Tin Man in search ofa heart, the Lion in search of courage actually had what they wantedall along. When the Wizard's false magic proved powerless, the WickedWitch was vanquished by a defenseless young girl and her little dog.When the Wizard disappeared in his hot air balloon, the unletteredScarecrow took over as leader of Oz.

The Wizard of Oz came to embody the American dream and theAmerican national spirit. In the United States, the land of abundance,all you had to do was to realize your potential and manifest it. That

12

was one of the tale's morals, but it also contained a darker one, amessage for which its imagery has become a familiar metaphor: thatthere are invisible puppeteers pulling the strings of the puppets we seeon the stage, in a show that is largely illusion.

The March on WashingtonThat Inspired the March on Oz

The 1890s were plagued by an economic depression that was nearlyas severe as the Great Depression of the 1930s. The farmers lived likeserfs to the bankers, having mortgaged their farms, their equipment,and sometimes even the seeds they needed for planting. They werecharged so much by a railroad cartel for shipping their products tomarket that they could have more costs and debts than profits. Thefarmers were as ignorant as the Scarecrow of banking policies; whilein the cities, unemployed factory workers were as frozen as the TinWoodman, from the lack of a free-flowing supply of money to "oil"the wheels of industry. In the early 1890s, unemployment had reached20 percent. The crime rate soared, families were torn apart, racialtensions boiled. The nation was in chaos. Radical party politics thrived.

In every presidential election between 1872 and 1896, there was athird national party running on a platform of financial reform. Typi-cally organized under the auspices of labor or farmer organizations,these were parties of the people rather than the banks. They includedthe Populist Party, the Greenback and Greenback Labor Parties, theLabor Reform Party, the Antimonopolist Party, and the Union LaborParty. They advocated expanding the national currency to meet theneeds of trade, reform of the banking system, and democratic controlof the financial system.7

Money reform advocates today tend to argue that the solution tothe country's financial woes is to return to the "gold standard," whichrequired that paper money be backed by a certain weight of gold bul-lion. But to the farmers and laborers who were suffering under itsyoke in the 1890s, the gold standard was the problem. They had beenthere and knew it didn't work. William Jennings Bryan called thebankers' private gold-based money a "cross of gold." There was sim-ply not enough gold available to finance the needs of an expandingeconomy. The bankers made loans in notes backed by gold and re-quired repayment in notes backed by gold; but the bankers controlledthe gold, and its price was subject to manipulation by speculators.

13

Gold's price had increased over the course of the century, while theprices laborers got for their wares had dropped. People short of goldhad to borrow from the bankers, who periodically contracted the moneysupply by calling in loans and raising interest rates. The result was"tight" money - insufficient money to go around. Like in a game ofmusical chairs, the people who came up short wound up losing theirhomes to the banks.

The solution of Jacob Coxey and his Industrial Army of destituteunemployed men was to augment the money supply with government-issued United States Notes. Popularly called "Greenbacks," thesefederal dollars were first issued by President Lincoln when he wasfaced with usurious interest rates in the 1860s. Lincoln had foiled thebankers by making up the budget shortfall with U.S. Notes that didnot accrue interest and did not have to be paid back to the banks. Thesame sort of debt-free paper money had financed a long period ofcolonial abundance in the eighteenth century, until King George forbadethe colonies from issuing their own currency. The money supply hadthen shrunk, precipitating a depression that led to the AmericanRevolution.

To remedy the tight-money problem that resulted when theGreenbacks were halted after Lincoln's assassination, Coxey proposedthat Congress should increase the money supply with a further $500million in Greenbacks. This new money would be used to redeem thefederal debt and to stimulate the economy by putting the unemployedto work on public projects.8 The bankers countered that allowing thegovernment to issue money would be dangerously inflationary. Whatthey failed to reveal was that their own paper banknotes werethemselves highly inflationary, since the same gold was "lent" manytimes over, effectively counterfeiting it; and when the bankers lenttheir paper money to the government, the government wound upheavily in debt for something it could have created itself. But thosefacts were buried in confusing rhetoric, and the bankers' "goldstandard" won the day.

14

The Silver Slippers: The Populist Solutionto the Money Question

The Greenback Party was later absorbed into the Populist Party,which took up the cause against tight money in the 1890s. Like theGreenbackers, the Populists argued that money should be issued bythe government rather than by private banks. William Jennings Bryan,the Populists' loquacious leader, gave such a stirring speech at theDemocratic convention that he won the Democratic nomination forPresident in 1896. Outgoing President Grover Cleveland was also aDemocrat, but he was an agent of J. P. Morgan and the Wall Streetbanking interests. Cleveland favored money that was issued by thebanks, and he backed the bankers' gold standard. Bryan was op-posed to both. He argued in his winning nomination speech:

We say in our platform that we believe that the right to coinmoney and issue money is a function of government. . . . Those whoare opposed to this proposition tell us that the issue of papermoney is a function of the bank and that the government oughtto go out of the banking business. I stand with Jefferson . . . andtell them, as he did, that the issue of money is a function of thegovernment and that the banks should go out of the governing business.. . . [W]hen we have restored the money of the Constitution, allother necessary reforms will be possible, and . . . until that isdone there is no reform that can be accomplished.

He concluded with these famous lines:

You shall not press down upon the brow of labor this crown ofthorns, you shall not crucify mankind upon a cross of gold.9

Since the Greenbackers' push for government-issued paper moneyhad failed, Bryan and the "Silverites" proposed solving the liquidityproblem in another way. The money supply could be supplementedwith coins made of silver, a precious metal that was cheaper and morereadily available than gold. Silver was considered to be "the money ofthe Constitution." The Constitution referred only to the "dollar," butthe dollar was understood to be a reference to the Spanish milled silverdollar coin then in common use. The slogan of the Silverites was "16to 1": 16 ounces of silver would be the monetary equivalent of 1 ounceof gold. Ounces is abbreviated oz, hence "Oz." The Wizard of theGold Ounce (Oz) in Washington was identified by later commentatorsas Marcus Hanna, the power behind the Republican Party, who

15

controlled the mechanisms of finance in the administration of PresidentWilliam McKinley.10 (Karl Rove, political adviser to President GeorgeBush Jr., reportedly took Hanna for a role model.11)

Frank Baum, the journalist who turned the politics of his day intoThe Wonderful Wizard of Oz, marched with the Populist Party insupport of Bryan in 1896. Baum is said to have had a deep distrust ofbig-city financiers; but when his dry goods business failed, he boughta Republican newspaper, which had to have a Republican message toretain its readership.12 That may have been why the Populist messagewas so deeply buried in symbolism in his famous fairytale. Like LewisCarroll, who began his career writing uninspiring tracts aboutmathematics and politics and wound up satirizing Victorian societyin Alice's Adventures in Wonderland, Baum was able to suggest in achildren's story what he could not say in his editorials. His bookcontained many subtle allusions to the political and financial issues ofthe day. The story's inspirational message was a product of the timesas well. Commentators trace it to the theosophical movement, anotherpopular trend of which Baum was an active member.13 Newly-imported from India, it held that reality is a construct of the mind.What you want is already yours; you need only to believe it, to "realize"it or "make it real."

Looking at the plot of this familiar fairytale, then, through the lensof the contemporary movements that inspired it ... .

An Allegory of Money, Politicsand Believing in Yourself

The story begins on a barren Kansas farm, where Dorothy liveswith a very sober aunt and uncle who "never laughed" (the 1890sdepression that hit the farmers particularly hard). A cyclone comesup, carrying Dorothy and the farmhouse into the magical world ofOz (the American dream that might have been). The house lands onthe Wicked Witch of the East (the Wall Street bankers and their manGrover Cleveland), who has kept the Munchkins (the farmers andfactory workers) in bondage for many years.

For killing the Wicked Witch, Dorothy is awarded magic silverslippers (the Populist silver solution to the money crisis) by the GoodWitch of the North (the North was then a Populist stronghold). In the1939 film, the silver slippers would be transformed into ruby slippersto show off the cinema's new technicolor abilities; but the monetary

16

imagery Baum suggested was lost. The silver shoes had the magicpower to solve Dorothy's dilemma, just as the Silverites thought thatexpanding the money supply with silver coins would solve the problemsfacing the farmers.

Dorothy wanted to get back to Kansas but was unaware of thepower of the slippers on her feet, so she set out to the Emerald City toseek help from the Wizard of Oz (the apparently all-powerful President,whose strings were actually pulled by financiers concealed behind acurtain).

"The road to the City of Emeralds is paved with yellow brick," shewas told, "so you cannot miss it." Baum's contemporary audience,wrote Professor Ziaukas, could not miss it either, as an allusion to thegold standard that was then a hot topic of debate.14 Like the EmeraldCity and the Great and Powerful Oz himself, the yellow brick roadwould turn out to be an illusion. In the end, what would carry Dorothyhome were silver slippers.

On her journey down the yellow brick road, Dorothy was firstjoined by the Scarecrow in search of a brain (the naive but intelligentfarmer kept in the dark about the government's financial policies),then by the Tin Woodman in search of a heart (the factory workerfrozen by unemployment and dehumanized by mechanization).Littlefield commented:

The Tin Woodman . . . had been put under a spell by the Witchof the East. Once an independent and hard working humanbeing, the Woodman found that each time he swung his axe itchopped off a different part of his body. Knowing no othertrade he "worked harder than ever," for luckily in Oz tinsmithscan repair such things. Soon the Woodman was all tin. In thisway Eastern witchcraft dehumanized a simple laborer so thatthe faster and better he worked the more quickly he became akind of machine. Here is a Populist view of evil Easterninfluences on honest labor which could hardly be more pointed.

The Eastern witchcraft that had caused the Woodman to chop offparts of his own body reflected the dark magic of the Wall Street bank-ers, whose "gold standard" allowed less money into the system thanwas collectively owed to the banks, causing the assets of the laboringclasses to be systematically devoured by debt.

The fourth petitioner to join the march on Oz was the Lion insearch of courage. According to Littlefield, he represented the oratorBryan himself, whose roar was mighty like the king of the forest but

17

who lacked political power. Bryan was branded a coward by hisopponents, because he was a pacifist and anti-imperialist at a time ofAmerican expansion in Asia. The Lion became entranced and fellasleep in the Witch's poppy field, suggesting Bryan's tendency to getside-tracked with issues of American imperialism stemming from theOpium Wars. Since Bryan led the "Populist" or "People's" Party, theLion also represented the people, collectively powerful but entrancedand unaware of their strength.

In the Emerald City, the people were required to wear green-coloredglasses attached by a gold buckle, suggesting green paper moneyshackled to the gold standard.

To get to her room in the Emerald Palace, Dorothy had to gothrough 7 passages and up 3 flights of stairs, an allusion to the "Crimeof '73." The 1873 Act that changed the money system from bimetallism(paper notes backed by both gold and silver) to an exclusive goldstandard was proof to all Populists that Congress and the bankerswere in collusion.15

Dorothy and her troop presented their requests to the Wizard,who demanded that they first vanquish the Wicked Witch of the West,representing the McKinley/Rockefeller faction in Ohio (then consid-ered a Western state). The financial powers of the day were the Mor-gan/Wall Street/Cleveland faction in the East (the Wicked Witch ofthe East) and this Rockefeller-backed contingent from Ohio, the stateof McKinley, Hanna, and Rockefeller's Standard Oil cartel. Hannawas an industrialist who was a high school friend of John D. Rockefellerand had the financial backing of the oil giant.16

Dorothy and her friends learned that the Witch of the West hadenslaved the Yellow Winkies and the Winged Monkeys (an allusion tothe Chinese immigrants working on the Union-Pacific railroad, thenative Americans banished from the northern woods, and the Filipinosdenied independence by McKinley). Dorothy destroyed the Witch bymelting her with a bucket of water, suggesting the rain that wouldreverse the drought, as well as the financial liquidity that the Populistsolution would bring to the land. As one nineteenth centurycommentator put it, "Money and debt are as opposite in nature as fireand water; money extinguishes debt as water extinguishes fire."17

When Dorothy and her troop got lost in the forest, she was told tocall the Winged Monkeys by using a Golden Cap she had found in theWitch's cupboard. When the Winged Monkeys came, their leaderexplained that they were once a free and happy people; but they werenow "three times the slaves of the owner of the Golden Cap, whosoever

18

he may be" (the bankers and their gold standard). When the GoldenCap fell into the hands of the Wicked Witch of the West, the Witchmade them enslave the Winkies and drive Oz himself from the Landof the West.

Dorothy used the power of the Cap to have her band of pilgrimsflown to the Emerald City, where they discovered that the "Wizard"was only a smoke and mirrors illusion operated by a little man behinda curtain. A dispossessed Nebraska man himself, he admitted to be-ing a "humbug" without real power. "One of my greatest fears wasthe Witches," he said, "for while I had no magical powers at all I soonfound out that the Witches were really able to do wonderful things."

If the Wizard and his puppet were Marcus Hanna and WilliamMcKinley, who were the Witches they feared? Behind the Wall Streetbankers were powerful British financiers, who funded the Confeder-ates in the Civil War and had been trying to divide and conquerAmerica economically for over a century. Patriotic Americans hadregarded the British as the enemy ever since the American Revolu-tion. McKinley was a protectionist who favored high tariffs to keepthese marauding British free-traders out. When he was assassinatedin 1901, no conspiracy was proved; but some suspicious commenta-tors saw the invisible hand of British high finance at work.18

Although the Wizard lacked magical powers, he was a very goodpsychologist, who showed the petitioners that they had the power tosolve their own problems and manifest their own dreams. TheScarecrow just needed a paper diploma to realize that he had a brain.For the Tin Woodman, it was a silk heart; for the Lion, an elixir forcourage. The Wizard offered to take Dorothy back to Kansas in thehot air balloon in which he had arrived years earlier, but the balloontook off before she could get on board.

Dorothy and her friends then set out to find Glinda the Good Witchof the South, who they were told could help Dorothy find her wayhome. On the way they faced various challenges, including a greatspider that ate everything in its path and kept everyone unsafe as longas it was alive. The Lion (the Populist leader Bryan) welcomed thischance to test his new-found courage and prove he was indeed theKing of Beasts. He decapitated the mighty spider with his paw, justas Bryan would have toppled the banking cartel if he had won thePresidency.

The group finally reached Glinda, who revealed that Dorothy toohad the magic tokens she needed all along: the Silver Shoes on her feetwould take her home. But first, said Glinda, Dorothy must give up

19

Chapter 1 - Lessons from the Wizard of Oz

the Golden Cap (the bankers' restrictive gold standard that hadenslaved the people).

The moral also worked for the nation itself. The economy wasdeep in depression, but the country's farmlands were still fertile andits factories were ready to roll. Its entranced people merely lacked thepaper tokens called "money" that would facilitate production andtrade. The people had been deluded into a belief in scarcity by definingtheir wealth in terms of a scarce commodity, gold. The country's truewealth consisted of its goods and services, its resources and thecreativity of its people. Like the Tin Woodman in need of oil, all itneeded was a monetary medium that would allow this wealth to flowfreely, circulating from the government to the people and back again,without being perpetually siphoned off into the private coffers of thebankers.

Sequel to Oz

The Populists did not achieve their goals, but they did prove that athird party could influence national politics and generate legislation.Although Bryan the Lion failed to stop the bankers, Dorothy's proto-type Jacob Coxey was still on the march. In a plot twist that would beconsidered contrived if it were fiction, he reappeared on the scene inthe 1930s to run against Franklin D. Roosevelt for President, at a timewhen the "money question" had again become a burning issue. Inone five-year period, over 2,000 schemes for monetary reform wereadvanced. Needless to say, Coxey lost the election; but he claimedthat his Greenback proposal was the model for the "New Deal,"Roosevelt's plan for putting the unemployed to work on governmentprojects to pull the country out of the Depression. The difference wasthat Coxey's plan would have been funded with debt-free currencyissued by the government, on Lincoln's Greenback model. Rooseveltfunded the New Deal with borrowed money, indebting the countryto a banking cartel that was surreptitiously creating the money out ofthin air, just as the government itself would have been doing underCoxey's plan without accruing a crippling debt to the banks.

After World War II, the money question faded into obscurity.Today, writes British economist Michael Rowbotham, "The surest wayto ruin a promising career in economics, whether professional oracademic, is to venture into the 'cranks and crackpots' world ofsuggestions for reform of the financial system."19 Yet the claims of

20

Web of Debt

these cranks and crackpots have consistently proven to be correct.The U.S. debt burden has mushroomed out of control, until just theinterest on the federal debt now threatens to be a greater tax burdenthan the taxpayers can afford. The gold standard precipitated theproblem, but unbuckling the dollar from gold did not solve it. Rather,it caused worse financial ills. Expanding the money supply withincreasing amounts of "easy" bank credit just put increasing amountsof money in the bankers' pockets, while consumers sank further intodebt. The problem has proven to be something more fundamental: itis in who extends the nation's credit. As long as the money supply iscreated as a debt owed back to private banks with interest, the nation'swealth will continue to be drained off into private vaults, leavingscarcity in its wake.

Today's monetary allegory goes something like this: the dollar is anational resource that belongs to the people. It was an original inven-tion of the early American colonists, a new form of paper currencybacked by the "full faith and credit" of the people. But a private bank-ing cartel has taken over its issuance, turning debt into money anddemanding that it be paid back with interest. Taxes and a crushingfederal debt have been imposed by a financial ruling class that keepsthe people entranced and enslaved. In the happy storybook ending,the power to create money is returned to the people and abundancereturns to the land. But before we get there, the Yellow Brick Roadtakes us through the twists and turns of history and the writings andinsights of a wealth of key players. We're off to see the Wizard ....

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Chapter 2BEHIND THE CURTAIN:THE FEDERAL RESERVEAND THE FEDERAL DEBT

"Orders are — nobody can see the Great Oz! Not nobody - notnohow!. . . He's in conference with himself on account of this troublewith the Witch. And even if he wasn't you wouldn't have been ableto see him anyway on account of nobody has - not even us in thePalace!"

- The Wizard of Oz (1939 film),"The Guardian of the Gates"

The Federal Reserve did not yet exist when Frank Baumwrote The Wonderful Wizard of Oz, but the book's image ofan all-too-human wizard acting behind a curtain of secrecy has beena favorite metaphor for the Fed's illustrious Chairman, who has beencalled the world's most powerful banker. Unlike the U.S. President,who must worry about re-election every four years and can serve onlytwo terms, the head of the Fed can be reappointed indefinitely andanswers to no one. Alan Greenspan served for more than eighteenyears under four Presidents before he retired. In a 2001 article titled"Greenspan: Financial Wizard of Oz," journalist Paul Sperry wrote ofthat long-standing Chairman:

You may think that congress - and therefore the people - cancontrol him. But all lawmakers can do is call him to testifyperiodically .... The hearings are an exercise in futility, notaccountability, because Greenspan just obfuscates till everyoneis bored silly. You may think that the press can pin him down.In fact, we have no access to him. No press conferences or

23

interviews are allowed. The high priest is untouchable in hismarble temple here on Constitution Avenue.1

Sperry quoted another Fed-watcher, who remarked:

Here's this guy, projecting this huge brain, and everyone's inawe of him. But pull back the curtain and there's just this littleman frantically pulling at levers to maintain the image of anintellectual giant.2

Why is it necessary for the Federal Reserve to act behind a curtainof secrecy, independent of congressional oversight and control? Sup-posedly it is so the Fed can take actions that are in the best interests ofthe economy although they might be unpopular with voters. But asWright Patman, Chairman of the House Banking and Currency Com-mittee, pointed out in the 1960s, Congress makes decisions every daythat are unpopular, including raising taxes, cutting programs, andincreasing expenditures; yet it does so after open debate, in the demo-cratic way. Why can't the Fed's Chairman, who doesn't even have toworry about re-election, lay his cards on the table in the same way?The Wizard of Oz could no doubt have answered that question: thewhole money game is sleight of hand, and it depends on deception towork.

A Game of Smoke and Mirrors

Illusion surrounding the Federal Reserve begins with its name. TheFederal Reserve is not actually federal, and it keeps no reserves — atleast, not in the sense most people think. No gold or silver backs itsFederal Reserve notes (our dollar bills). A booklet published by theFederal Reserve Bank of New York states:

Currency cannot be redeemed, or exchanged, for Treasury goldor any other asset used as backing. The question of just whatassets "back" Federal Reserve notes has little but bookkeepingsignificance.3

The Federal Reserve is commonly called the "Fed," confusing itwith the U.S. government; but it is actually a private corporation.4 Itis so private that its stock is not even traded on the stock exchange.The government doesn't own it. You and I can't own it. It is ownedby a consortium of private banks, the biggest of which are Citibankand J. P. Morgan Chase Company. These two mega-banks are thefinancial cornerstones of the empires built by J. P. Morgan and John

24

D. Rockefeller, the "Robber Barons" who orchestrated the Federal Re-serve Act in 1913. (More on this in Chapter 13.)

As for keeping "reserves," Wright Patman decided to see for him-self. Having heard that Federal Reserve Banks hold large amounts ofcash, he visited two regional Federal Reserve banks, where he was ledinto vaults and shown great piles of government securities (I.O.U.srepresenting debt).' When he asked to see their cash, the bank offi-cials seemed confused. He repeated the request, only to be shownsome ledgers and bank checks. Patman wrote:

The cash, in truth, does not exist and never has existed. Whatwe call "cash reserves" are simply bookkeeping credits enteredupon the ledgers of the Federal Reserve Banks. These credits arecreated by the Federal Reserve Banks and then passed alongthrough the banking system.5

Where did the Federal Reserve get the money to acquire all thegovernment bonds in its vaults? Patman answered his own rhetoricalquestion:

It doesn't get money, it creates it. When the Federal Reserve writesa check for a government bond it does exactly what any bank does,it creates money, it created money purely and simply by writing acheck. [When] the recipient of the check wants cash, then theFederal Reserve can oblige him by printing the cash — FederalReserve notes — which the check receiver's commercial bankcan hand over to him. The federal Reserve, in short, is a totalmoney-making machine.6

Turning Debt into Money

The Federal Reserve is indispensable to the bankers' money-makingmachine, but the dollar bills it creates represent only a very smallportion of the money supply. Most money today is created neither bythe government nor by the Federal Reserve. Rather, it is created byprivate commercial banks.

The "money supply" is defined as the entire quantity of bills, coins,loans, credit, and other liquid instruments in a country's economy.

' A "security" is a type of transferable interest representing financial value.The securities composing the federal debt consist of U.S. Treasury bills (or T-bills — securities which mature in a year or less), Treasury notes (which maturein two to ten years), and Treasury bonds (which mature in ten years or longer).

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"Liquid" instruments are those that are easily convertible into cash.The American money supply is officially divided into Ml, M2, andM3. Only Ml is what we usually think of as money - coins, dollarbills, and the money in our checking accounts. M2 is Ml plus savingsaccounts, money market funds, and other individual or "small" timedeposits. (The "money market" is the trade in short-term, low-risksecurities, such as certificates of deposit and U.S. Treasury notes.) M3is Ml and M2 plus institutional and other larger time deposits(including institutional money market funds) and eurodollars(American dollars circulating abroad).

In 2005, Ml (coins, dollar bills and checking account deposits)tallied in at $1.4 trillion. Federal Reserve Notes in circulation came to$758 billion, but about 70 percent of those circulated overseas, bringingthe figure down to $227.5 billion in use in the United States.7 The U.S.Mint reported that in September 2004, circulating collections of coinscame to only $993 million, or just under $1 billion.8 M3 (the largestmeasure of the money supply) was $9.7 trillion in 2005.9 Thus coinsmade up only about one one-thousandth of the total money supply(M3), and tangible currency in the form of coins and Federal ReservesNotes (dollar bills) together made up only about 2.4 percent of it. Theother 97.6 percent magically appeared from somewhere else. This was themoney Wright Patman said was created by banks when they madeloans.

The mechanics of money creation were explained in a revealingbooklet published by the Chicago Federal Reserve in the 1960s, called"Modern Money Mechanics: A Workbook on Bank Reserves andDeposit Expansion."10 The booklet is a gold mine of insider informationand will be explored at length later, but here are some highlights. Itbegins, "The purpose of this booklet is to describe the basic process ofmoney creation in a 'fractional reserve' banking system. . . . The actualprocess of money creation takes place primarily in banks." The ChicagoFed then explains:

[Banks] do not really pay out loans from the money they receive asdeposits. If they did this, no additional money would be created.What they do when they make loans is to accept promissorynotes in exchange for credits to the borrowers' transactionaccounts.

The booklet explains that money creation is done by "building up"deposits, and that this is done by making loans. Contrary to popularbelief, loans become deposits rather than the reverse. The Chicago Fedstates:

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[B]anks can build up deposits by increasing loans andinvestments so long as they keep enough currency on hand toredeem whatever amounts the holders of deposits want toconvert into currency. This unique attribute of the bankingbusiness was discovered many centuries ago. It started withgoldsmiths ....

The "unique attribute" discovered by the goldsmiths was that theycould issue and lend paper receipts for the same gold many timesover, so long as they kept enough gold in "reserve" for any depositorswho might come for their money. This was the sleight of hand laterdignified as "fractional reserve" banking ....

The Shell Game of the Goldsmiths Becomes"Fractional Reserve" Banking

Trade in seventeenth century Europe was conducted primarily withgold and silver coins. Coins were durable and had value in them-selves, but they were hard to transport in bulk and could be stolen ifnot kept under lock and key. Many people therefore deposited theircoins with the goldsmiths, who had the strongest safes in town. Thegoldsmiths issued convenient paper receipts that could be traded inplace of the bulkier coins they represented. These receipts were alsoused when people who needed coins came to the goldsmiths for loans.

The mischief began when the goldsmiths noticed that only about10 to 20 percent of their receipts came back to be redeemed in gold atany one time. They could safely "lend" the gold in their strongboxesat interest several times over, as long as they kept 10 to 20 percent ofthe value of their outstanding loans in gold to meet the demand. Theythus created "paper money" (receipts for loans of gold) worth severaltimes the gold they actually held. They typically issued notes andmade loans in amounts that were four to five times their actual supplyof gold. At an interest rate of 20 percent, the same gold lent five timesover produced a 100 percent return every year - this on gold the gold-smiths did not actually own and could not legally lend at all! If theywere careful not to overextend this "credit," the goldsmiths could thusbecome quite wealthy without producing anything of value themselves.Since more money was owed back than the townspeople as a wholepossessed, the wealth of the town and eventually of the country wassiphoned into the vaults of these goldsmiths-turned-bankers, whilethe people fell progressively into their debt.11

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If a landlord had rented the same house to five people at one timeand pocketed the money, he would quickly have been jailed for fraud.But the goldsmiths had devised a system in which they traded, notthings of value, but paper receipts for them. The system was called"fractional reserve" banking because the gold held in reserve was amere fraction of the banknotes it supported. In 1934, Elgin Groseclose,Director of the Institute for International Monetary Research, wrylyobserved:

A warehouseman, taking goods deposited with him and devotingthem to his own profit, either by use or by loan to another, isguilty of a tort, a conversion of goods for which he is liable incivil, if not in criminal, law. By a casuistry which is now elevatedinto an economic principle, but which has no defenders outsidethe realm of banking, a warehouseman who deals in money issubject to a diviner law: the banker is free to use for his privateinterest and profit the money left in trust. . . . He may even gofurther. He may create fictitious deposits on his books, which shallrank equally and ratably with actual deposits in any division of assetsin case of liquidation.12

A tort is a wrongdoing for which a civil action may be brought fordamages. Conversion is a tort involving the treatment of another'sproperty as one's own. Another tort that has been applied to thissleight of hand is fraud, defined in Black's Law Dictionary as "a falserepresentation of a matter of fact, whether by words or by conduct,by false or misleading allegations, or by concealment of that whichshould have been disclosed, which deceives and is intended to deceiveanother so that he shall act upon it to his legal injury." That term wasused by the court in a landmark Minnesota lawsuit in 1969 ....

Taking It to Court

First National Bank of Montgomery vs. Daly was a courtroomdrama worthy of a movie script. Defendant Jerome Daly opposed thebank's foreclosure on his $14,000 home mortgage loan on the groundthat there was no consideration for the loan. "Consideration" ("thething exchanged") is an essential element of a contract. Daly, an at-torney representing himself, argued that the bank had put up no realmoney for his loan.

The courtroom proceedings were recorded by Associate Justice BillDrexler, whose chief role, he said, was to keep order in a highly charged

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courtroom where the attorneys were threatening a fist fight. Drexlerhadn't given much credence to the theory of the defense, until Mr.Morgan, the bank's president, took the stand. To everyone's surprise,Morgan admitted that the bank routinely created the money it lent"out of thin air," and that this was standard banking practice.

"It sounds like fraud to me," intoned Presiding Justice MartinMahoney amid nods from the jurors. In his court memorandum, Jus-tice Mahoney stated:

Plaintiff admitted that it, in combination with the Federal ReserveBank of Minneapolis, . . . did create the entire $14,000.00 in moneyand credit upon its own books by bookkeeping entry. That this wasthe consideration used to support the Note dated May 8, 1964and the Mortgage of the same date. The money and credit firstcame into existence when they created it. Mr. Morgan admittedthat no United States Law or Statute existed which gave him theright to do this. A lawful consideration must exist and be tendered tosupport the Note.

The court rejected the bank's claim for foreclosure, and the defen-dant kept his house. To Daly, the implications were enormous. Ifbankers were indeed extending credit without consideration - withoutbacking their loans with money they actually had in their vaults andwere entitled to lend - a decision declaring their loans void could topplethe power base of the world. He wrote in a local news article:

This decision, which is legally sound, has the effect of declaringall private mortgages on real and personal property, and all U.S.and State bonds held by the Federal Reserve, National and Statebanks to be null and void. This amounts to an emancipation ofthis Nation from personal, national and state debt purportedlyowed to this banking system. Every American owes it to himself... to study this decision very carefully . . . for upon it hangs thequestion of freedom or slavery.13

Needless to say, however, the decision failed to change prevailingpractice, although it was never overruled. It was heard in a Justice ofthe Peace Court, an autonomous court system dating back to thosefrontier days when defendants had trouble traveling to big cities torespond to summonses. In that system (which has now largely beenphased out), judges and courts were pretty much on their own. JusticeMahoney went so far as to threaten to prosecute and expose the bank.He died less than six months after the Daly trial, in a mysteriousaccident that appeared to involve poisoning.14

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Since that time, a number of defendants have attempted to avoidloan defaults using the defense Daly raised; but they have met withonly limited success. As one judge said off the record, using a familiarWizard of Oz metaphor:

If I let you do that - you and everyone else - it would bring thewhole system down. ... I cannot let you go behind the bar of thebank. . . . We are not going behind that curtain^}5

In an informative website called Money: What It Is, How It Works,William Hummel states that banks today account for only about 20percent of total credit market debt. The rest is advanced by non-bankfinancial institutions, including finance companies, pension funds,mutual funds, insurance companies, and securities dealers. These in-stitutions merely recycle pre-existing funds, either by borrowing at alow interest rate and lending at a higher rate or by pooling the moneyof investors and lending it to borrowers. In other words, they do whatmost people think banks do: they borrow low and lend high, pocket-ing the "spread" as their profit. What banks actually do, however, issomething quite different. Hummel explains:

Banks are not ordinary intermediaries. Like non-banks, theyalso borrow, but they do not lend the deposits they acquire. Theylend by crediting the borrower's account with a new deposit.... Theaccounts of other depositors remain intact and their depositsfully available for withdrawal. Thus a bank loan increases thetotal of bank deposits, which means an increase in the money supply}b

If the money supply is being increased, money is being created bysleight of hand. What Elgin Groseclose called the "diviner law" of thebankers allows them to magically pull money out of an empty hat.

The "Impossible Contract"

There are other legal grounds on which the bankers' fractionalreserve loans might be challenged besides failure of consideration andfraud. In theory, at least, these loan contracts could be challengedbecause they are collectively impossible to perform. Under state civilcodes, a contract that is impossible to perform is void.17 Theimpossibility in this case arises because the banks create the principalbut not the interest needed to pay back their loans. The debtorsscramble to find the interest somewhere else, but there is never enoughmoney to go around. Like in a grand game of musical chairs, whenthe music stops, somebody has to default. In an 1850 treatise called

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The Importance of Usury Laws, a writer named John Whipple did themath. He wrote:

If 5 English pennies . . . had been [lent] at 5 per cent compoundinterest from the beginning of the Christian era until the presenttime (say 1850), it would amount in gold of standard fineness to32,366,648,157 spheres of gold each eight thousand miles indiameter, or as large as the earth.18

Thirty-two billion earth-sized spheres! Such is the nature ofcompound interest — interest calculated not only on the initial principalbut on the accumulated interest of prior payment periods. The interest"compounds" in a parabolic curve that is virtually flat at first but goesnearly vertical after 100 years. Debts don't usually grow to theseextremes because most loans are for 30 years or less, when the curveremains relatively flat. But the premise still applies: in a system inwhich money comes into existence only by borrowing at interest, thesystem as a whole is always short of funds, and somebody has to default.

Bernard Lietaer helped design the single currency system (the Euro)and has written several books on monetary reform. He explains theinterest problem like this:

When a bank provides you with a $100,000 mortgage, it createsonly the principal, which you spend and which then circulatesin the economy. The bank expects you to pay back $200,000over the next 20 years, but it doesn't create the second $100,000— the interest. Instead, the bank sends you out into the toughworld to battle against everybody else to bring back the second$100,000.

The problem is that all money except coins now comes from banker-created loans, so the only way to get the interest owed on old loans isto take out new loans, continually inflating the money supply; eitherthat, or some borrowers have to default. Lietaer concluded:

[G]reed and competition are not a result of immutable humantemperament .... [Gjreed and fear of scarcity are in fact beingcontinuously created and amplified as a direct result of the kind ofmoney we are using. . . . [W]e can produce more than enoughfood to feed everybody, and there is definitely enough work foreverybody in the world, but there is clearly not enough moneyto pay for it all. The scarcity is in our national currencies. In fact,the job of central banks is to create and maintain that currency scarcity.The direct consequence is that we have to fight with each other inorder to survive.19

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$10,000 lent at 6% interest compounded annually

Adapted from: www.buyupside.com

1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49

Years Held

A dollar lent at 6 percent interest, compounded annually, becomesten dollars in less than 40 years. That means that if the money supplywere 100 percent gold, and if banks lent 10 percent of it at 6 percentinterest compounded annually (continually rolling principal and in-terest over into more loans), in 40 years the bankers would own all thegold. It also means that the inflation everyone complains about isactually necessary to keep the scheme going. To keep workers on thetreadmill that powers their industrial empire, the financiers must cre-ate enough new debt-money to cover the interest on their loans. Theydon't want to create too much, as that would dilute the value of theirown share of the pie; but in a "credit crisis" such as we are facingtoday, the central banks can and do flood the market with moneycreated with accounting entries. In a single day in August 2007, theU.S. Federal Reserve "injected" $38 billion into the financial marketsto rescue troubled banks and investment firms. Where did this moneycome from? It was just an advance of "credit," something centralbanks claim the right to do as "lenders of last resort." These advancescan be rolled over or renewed indefinitely, creating a stealth inflationthat drives up prices at the pump and the grocery store.20 (More onthis later.)

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Web of Debt

The Money Supply and the Federal Debt

To keep the economic treadmill turning, not only must the moneysupply continually inflate but the federal debt must continuallyexpand. The reason was revealed by Marriner Eccles, Governor of theFederal Reserve Board, in hearings before the House Committee onBanking and Currency in 1941. Wright Patman asked Eccles how theFederal Reserve got the money to buy government bonds.

"We created it," Eccles replied.

"Out of what?"

"Out of the right to issue credit money."

"And there is nothing behind it, is there, except our government'scredit?"

"That is what our money system is," Eccles replied. "If there wereno debts in our money system, there wouldn't be any money."11

That explains why the federal debt never gets paid off but justcontinues to grow. The federal debt hasn't been paid off since thepresidency of Andrew Jackson nearly two centuries ago. Rather, inall but five fiscal years since 1961 (1969 and 1998 through 2001), thegovernment has exceeded its projected budget, adding to the nationaldebt.22 Economist John Kenneth Galbraith wrote in 1975:

In numerous years following the [civil] war, the FederalGovernment ran a heavy surplus. [But] it could not pay off itsdebt, retire its securities, because to do so meant there would beno bonds to back the national bank notes. To pay off the debt wasto destroy the money supply.23

The federal debt has been the basis of the U.S. money supply eversince the Civil War, when the National Banking Act authorized privatebanks to issue their own banknotes backed by government bondsdeposited with the U.S. Treasury. (This complicated bit of chicaneryis explored in Chapter 9.) When President Clinton announced "thelargest budget surplus in history" in 2000, and President Bushpredicted a $5.6 trillion surplus by the end of the decade, many peoplegot the impression that the federal debt had been paid off; but thiswas another illusion. Not only did the $5.6 trillion budget "surplus"never materialize (it was just an optimistic estimate projected over aten-year period based on an anticipated surplus for the year 2001that never materialized), but it entirely ignored the principal owing onthe federal debt. Like the deluded consumer who makes the minimummonthly interest payment on his credit card bill and calls his credit

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Chapter 2 - Behind the Curtain

limit "cash on hand," politicians who speak of "balancing the budget"include in their calculations only the interest on the national debt. By2000, when President Clinton announced the largest-ever budgetsurplus, the federal debt had actually topped $5 trillion; and by October2005, when the largest-ever projected surplus had turned into thelargest-ever budget deficit, the federal debt had mushroomed to $8trillion. M3 was $9.7 trillion the same year, not much more. It ishardly an exaggeration to say that the money supply is the federal debtand cannot exist without it. Commercial loans alone cannot sustain themoney supply because they zero out when they get paid back. Inorder to keep money in the system, some major player has to incursubstantial debt that never gets paid back; and this role is played bythe federal government.

That is one reason the federal debt can't be paid off, but todaythere is an even more compelling reason: the debt has simply growntoo large. To get some sense of the magnitude of an 8-plus trilliondollar debt, if you took 7 trillion steps you could walk to the planetPluto, which is a mere 4 billion miles away.24 If the government wereto pay $100 every second, in 317 years it would have paid off only onetrillion dollars of debt. And that's just for the principal. If interestwere added at the rate of only 1 percent compounded annually, thedebt could never be paid off in this way, because the debt would growfaster than it was being repaid.25 Paying an $8-plus trillion debt off ina lump sum through taxation, on the other hand, would require in-creasing the tax bill by more than $100,000 for every family of four, anon-starter for most families.26

In the 1980s, policymakers openly declared that "deficits don'tmatter." The government could engage in "deficit spending" andsimply allow the debt to grow. This policy continues to be cited withapproval by policymakers today.27 The truth is that nobody even expectsthe debt to be paid off, because it can't be paid off - at least, it can't whilemoney is created as a debt to private banks. The government doesn'thave to pay the principal so long as it keeps "servicing" the debt bypaying the interest. But according to David M. Walker, Director ofthe U.S. General Accounting Office and Comptroller General of theUnited States, just the interest tab will soon be more than the taxpayerscan afford to pay. When the government can't pay the interest, it willhave to renege on the debt, and the economy will collapse.28

How did we get into this witches' cauldron, and how can we getout of it? The Utopian vision of the early American colonists involveda money system that was quite different from what we have today.To understand what we lost and how we lost it, we'll take a journeyback down the Yellow Brick Road to eighteenth century America.

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Chapter 3EXPERIMENTS IN UTOPIA:COLONIAL PAPER MONEYAS LEGAL TENDER

Dorothy and her friends were at first dazzled by the brilliancy ofthe wonderful City. The streets were lined with beautiful houses allbuilt of green marble and studded everywhere with sparkling emeralds.They walked over a pavement of the same green marble, and wherethe blocks were joined together were rows of emeralds, set closely,and glittering in the brightness of the sun. . . . Everyone seemedhappy and contented and prosperous.

- The Wonderful Wizard ofOz,"The Emerald City ofOz"

Frank Baum's vision of a magical city shimmering in the suncaptured the Utopian American dream. Walt Disney wouldlater pick up the vision with his castles in the clouds, the happily-ever-after endings to romantic Hollywood fairytales. Baum, who wasIrish, may have been thinking of the Emerald Isle, the sacred land ofIreland. The Emerald City also suggested the millennial visions of theBiblical New Jerusalem and the "New Atlantis," the name Sir FrancisBacon gave to the New World.

The American colonies were an experiment in Utopia. In anuncharted territory, you could design new systems and make newrules. Paper money was already in use in England, but it had falleninto the hands of private bankers who were using it for private profitat the expense of the people. In the American version of this newmedium of exchange, paper money was issued and lent by provincialgovernments, and the proceeds were used for the benefit of the people.The colonists' new paper money financed a period of prosperity thatwas considered remarkable for isolated colonies lacking their own

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silver and gold. By 1750, Benjamin Franklin was able to write of NewEngland:

There was abundance in the Colonies, and peace was reigningon every border. It was difficult, and even impossible, to find ahappier and more prosperous nation on all the surface of theglobe. Comfort was prevailing in every home. The people, ingeneral, kept the highest moral standards, and education waswidely spread.

Money as Credit

The distinction of being the first local government to issue its ownpaper money went to the province of Massachusetts. The year was1691, three years before the charter of the Bank of England. JasonGoodwin, who tells the story in his 2003 book Greenback, writes thatMassachusetts' buccaneer governor had led a daring assault on Quebecin an attempt to drive the French out of Canada; but the assault hadfailed. Militiamen and widows needed to be paid. The local merchantswere approached but had declined, saying they had other demandson their money.

The idea of a paper currency had been suggested in 1650, in ananonymous British pamphlet titled "The Key to Wealth, or, a NewWay for Improving of Trade: Lawfull, Easie, Safe and Effectual." Thepaper currency proposed by the pamphleteer, however, was modeledon the receipts issued by London goldsmiths and silversmiths for theprecious metals left in their vaults for safekeeping. The problem forthe colonies was that they were short of silver and gold. They had touse foreign coins to conduct trade; and since they imported more thanthey exported, the coins were continually being drained off to Englandand other countries, leaving the colonists without enough money fortheir own internal needs. The Massachusetts Assembly thereforeproposed a new kind of paper money, a "bill of credit" representingthe government's "bond" or I.O.U. - its promise to pay tomorrow ona debt incurred today. The paper money of Massachusetts was backedonly by the "full faith and credit" of the government.1

Other colonies then followed suit with their own issues of papermoney. Some were considered government I.O.U.s, redeemable laterin "hard" currency (silver or gold). Other issues were "legal tender"in themselves. Legal tender is money that must legally be accepted inthe payment of debts. It is "as good as gold" in trade, without bearing

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debt or an obligation to redeem the notes in some other form of moneylater.2

When confidence in the new paper money waned, Cotton Mather,who was then the most famous minister in New England, came to itsdefense. He argued:

Is a Bond or Bill-of-Exchange for £1000, other than paper? Andyet is it not as valuable as so much Silver or Gold, supposing thesecurity of Payment is sufficient? Now what is the security ofyour Paper-money less than the Credit of the whole Country?3

Mather had redefined money. What it represented was not a sumof gold or silver. It was credit: "the credit of the whole country."

The Father of Paper Money

Benjamin Franklin was such an enthusiast for the new medium ofexchange that he has been called "the father of paper money." UnlikeCotton Mather, who went to Harvard at the age of 12, Franklin wasself-taught. He learned his trade on the job, and his trade happenedto be printing. In 1729, he wrote and printed a pamphlet called "AModest Enquiry into the Nature and Necessity of a Paper-Currency,"which was circulated throughout the colonies. It became very popular,earning him contracts to print paper money for New Jersey,Pennsylvania, and Delaware.4

Franklin wrote his pamphlet after observing the remarkable effectsthat paper currency had had in stimulating the economy in his homeprovince of Pennsylvania. He said, "Experience, more prevalent thanall the logic in the World, has fully convinced us all, that [paper money]has been, and is now of the greatest advantages to the country." Papercurrency secured against future tax revenues, he said, turnedprosperity tomorrow into ready money today. The government didnot need gold to issue this currency, and it did not need to go intodebt to the banks. In America, the land of opportunity, this readymoney would allow even the poor to get ahead. Franklin wrote,"Many that understand . . . Business very well, but have not a Stocksufficient of their own, will be encouraged to borrow Money; to tradewith, when they have it at a moderate interest."

He also said, "The riches of a country are to be valued by thequantity of labor its inhabitants are able to purchase and not by thequantity of gold and silver they possess." When gold was the mediumof exchange, money determined production rather than production

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determining the money supply. When gold was plentiful, things gotproduced. When it was scarce, men were out of work and peopleknew want. The virtue of government-issued paper scrip was that itcould grow along with productivity, allowing potential wealth tobecome real wealth. The government could pay for services with paperreceipts that were basically community credits. In this way, thecommunity actually created supply and demand at the same time. Thefarmer would not farm, the teacher would not teach, the miner wouldnot mine, unless the funds were available to compensate them fortheir labors. Paper "scrip" underwrote the production of goods andservices that would not otherwise have been on the market. Anythingfor which there was a buyer and a producer could be produced andtraded. If A had what B wanted, B had what C wanted, and C hadwhat A wanted, they could all get together and trade. They did notneed the moneylenders' gold, which could be hoarded, manipulated,or lent only at usurious interest rates.

Representation Without Taxation

The new paper money did more than make the coloniesindependent of the British bankers and their gold. It actually allowedthe colonists to finance their local governments without taxing the people.Alvin Rabushka, a senior fellow at the Hoover Institution at StanfordUniversity, traces this development in a 2002 article called"Representation Without Taxation." He writes that there were twomain ways the colonies issued paper money. Most colonies used both,in varying proportions. One was a direct issue of notes, usually called"bills of credit" or "treasury notes." These were I.O.U.s of thegovernment backed by specific future taxes; but the payback wasdeferred well into the future, and sometimes the funds never gotreturned to the treasury at all. Like in a bathtub without a drain, themoney supply kept increasing without a means of recycling it back toits source. However, the funds were at least not owed back to privateforeign lenders, and no interest was due on them. They were justcredits issued and spent into the economy on goods and services.

The recycling problem was solved when a second method of issuewas devised. Colonial assemblies discovered that provincial loan officescould generate a steady stream of revenue in the form of interest bytaking on the lending functions of banks. A government loan office calleda "land bank" would issue paper money and lend it to residents

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(usually farmers) at low rates of interest. The loans were secured bymortgages on real property, silver plate, and other hard assets.Franklin wrote, "Bills issued upon Land are in Effect Coined Land."New money issued and lent to borrowers came back to the loan officeon a regular payment schedule, preventing the money supply fromover-inflating and keeping the values of paper loan-office bills stablein terms of English sterling. The interest paid on the loans also wentinto the public coffers, funding the government. Colonies relying onthis method of issuing paper money thus wound up with more stablecurrencies than those relying heavily on new issues of bills of credit.

The most successful loan offices were in the middle colonies -Pennsylvania, Delaware, New York and New Jersey. The model thatearned the admiration of all was the loan office established inPennsylvania in 1723. The Pennsylvania plan showed that it wasquite possible for the government to issue new money in place of taxeswithout inflating prices. From 1723 until the French and Indian Warin the 1750s, the provincial government collected no taxes at all. Theloan office was the province's chief source of revenue, supplementedby import duties on liquor. During this period, Pennsylvania wholesaleprices remained stable. The currency depreciated by 21 percent againstEnglish sterling, but Rabushka shows that this was due to externaltrade relations rather than to changes in the quantity of currency incirculation.5

Before the loan office came to the rescue, Pennsylvania had beenlosing both business and residents due to a lack of available currency.The loan office injected new money into the economy, and it allowedpeople who had been forced to borrow from private bankers at 8percent interest to refinance their debts at the 5 percent rate offeredby the provincial government. Franklin said that this money systemwas the reason that Pennsylvania "has so greatly increased ininhabitants," having replaced "the inconvenient method of barter"and given "new life to business [and] promoted greatly the settlementof new lands (by lending small sums to beginners on easy interest)."When he was asked by the directors of the Bank of England why thecolonies were so prosperous, he replied that they issued paper money"in proper proportions to the demands of trade and industry." Thesecret was in not issuing too much, and in recycling the money backto the government in the form of principal and interest on government-issued loans.

The paper currencies of the New England colonies - Massachusetts,Rhode Island, Connecticut and New Hampshire - were less successful

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than those of the middle colonies, mainly because they failed to limittheir issues to these "proper proportions," or to recycle the moneyback to the government. The paper money of the New Englandcolonies helped to finance development and growth that would nototherwise have occurred, but the currencies did not maintain theirvalue, because bills of credit were issued in far greater quantities thanthe provincial governments ever hoped to redeem. Because the moneywas pumped into the economy without flowing back to thegovernment, the currency depreciated and price inflation resulted.

King George Steps In

Rapid depreciation of the New England bills eventually threatenedthe investments of British merchants and financiers who were doingbusiness with the colonies, and they leaned on Parliament to prohibitthe practice. In 1751, King George II enacted a ban on the issue of allnew paper money in the New England colonies, forcing the coloniststo borrow instead from the British bankers. This ban was continuedunder King George III, who succeeded his father in 1752.

In 1764, Franklin went to London to petition Parliament to lift theban. When he arrived, he was surprised to find rampant unemploy-ment and poverty among the British working classes. "The streetsare covered with beggars and tramps," he observed. When he askedwhy, he was told the country had too many workers. The rich werealready overburdened with taxes and could not pay more to relievethe poverty of the working classes. Franklin was then asked how theAmerican colonies managed to collect enough money to support theirpoor houses. He reportedly replied:

We have no poor houses in the Colonies; and if we had some,there would be nobody to put in them, since there is, in theColonies, not a single unemployed person, neither beggars nor tramps.6

His English listeners had trouble believing this, since when theirpoor houses and jails had become too cluttered, the English had actu-ally shipped their poor to the Colonies. The directors of the Bank ofEngland asked what was responsible for the booming economy of theyoung colonies. Franklin replied:

That is simple. In the colonies we issue our own money. It iscalled Colonial Scrip. We issue it to pay the government'sapproved expenses and charities. We make sure it is issued inproper proportions to make the goods pass easily from the

40

producers to the consumers. ... In this manner, creating forourselves our own paper money, we control its purchasingpower, and we have no interest to pay to no one. You see, alegitimate government can both spend and lend money intocirculation, while banks can only lend significant amounts oftheir promissory bank notes, for they can neither give away norspend but a tiny fraction of the money the people need. Thus,when your bankers here in England place money in circulation,there is always a debt principal to be returned and usury to bepaid. The result is that you have always too little credit incirculation to give the workers full employment. You do not havetoo many workers, you have too little money in circulation, and thatwhich circulates, all bears the endless burden of unpayable debt andusury.7

Banks were limited to lending money into the economy; and sincemore money was always owed back in principal and interest (or"usury") than was lent in the original loans, there was never enoughmoney in circulation to pay the interest and still keep workers fullyemployed. The government, on the other hand, had two ways of gettingmoney into the economy: it could both lend and spend the money intocirculation. It could spend enough new money to cover the interest due onthe money it lent, keeping the money supply in "proper proportion"and preventing the "impossible contract" problem — the problem ofhaving more money owed back on loans than was created by theloans themselves.

After extolling the benefits of colonial scrip to the citizens ofPennsylvania, Franklin told his listeners, "New York and New Jerseyhave also increased greatly during the same period, with the use ofpaper money; so that it does not appear to be of the ruinous natureascribed to it." Jason Goodwin observes that it was a tricky argumentto make. The colonists had been stressing to the mother country howpoor they were — so poor, they were forced to print paper money forlack of precious metals. Franklin's report demonstrated to Parliamentand the British bankers that the pretext for allowing paper moneyhad been removed. The point of having colonies was not, after all, tobolster the colonies' economies. It was to provide raw materials atdecent rates to the mother country. In 1764, the Bank of Englandused its influence on Parliament to get a Currency Act passed thatmade it illegal for any of the colonies to print their own money.8 Thecolonists were forced to pay all future taxes to Britain in silver or gold.

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Anyone lacking in those precious metals had to borrow them at interestfrom the banks.

Only a year later, Franklin said, the streets of the colonies werefilled with unemployed beggars, just as they were in England. Themoney supply had suddenly been reduced by half, leaving insufficientfunds to pay for the goods and services these workers could haveprovided. He maintained that it was "the poverty caused by the badinfluence of the English bankers on the Parliament which has causedin the colonies hatred of the English and . . . the Revolutionary War."This, he said, was the real reason for the Revolution: "The colonieswould gladly have borne the little tax on tea and other matters had itnot been that England took away from the colonies their money, whichcreated unemployment and dissatisfaction." John Twells, an Englishhistorian, confirmed this view of the Revolution, writing:

In a bad hour, the British Parliament took away from Americaits representative money, forbade any further issue of bills ofcredit, these bills ceasing to be legal tender, and ordered that alltaxes should be paid in coins. Consider now the consequences:this restriction of the medium of exchange paralyzed all theindustrial energies of the people. Ruin took place in these onceflourishing Colonies; most rigorous distress visited every familyand every business, discontent became desperation, and reacheda point, to use the words of Dr. Johnson, when human naturerises up and asserts its rights.9

Alexander Hamilton, the nation's first Treasury Secretary, saidthat paper money had composed three-fourths of the total moneysupply before the American Revolution. When the colonists couldnot issue their own currency, the money supply had suddenly shrunk,leaving widespread unemployment, hunger and poverty in its wake.Unlike in the Great Depression of the 1930s, people in the 1770s werekeenly aware of who was responsible for their distress. One day theywere trading freely with their own paper money. The next day it wasgone, banned by order of a king an ocean away, who demandedtribute in the coin of the British bankers. The outraged populaceignored the ban and went back to issuing their own paper money. Inhis illuminating monetary history The Lost Science of Money, StephenZarlenga quotes historian Alexander Del Mar, who wrote in 1895:[T]he creation and circulation of bills of credit by revolutionaryassemblies ... coming as they did upon the heels of the strenuousefforts made by the Crown to suppress paper money in America

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[were] acts of defiance so contemptuous and insulting to theCrown that forgiveness was thereafter impossible . . . [T]herewas but one course for the Crown to pursue and that was tosuppress and punish these acts of rebellion .... Thus the Bills ofCredit of this era, which ignorance and prejudice have attempted tobelittle into the mere instruments of a reckless financial policy werereally the standards of the Revolution. They were more than this:they were the Revolution itselflw

The Cornerstone of the Revolution

Like Massachusetts nearly a century earlier, the colonies suddenlyfound themselves at war and without the means to pay for it. Thefirst act of the new Continental Congress was to issue its own paperscrip, popularly called the Continental. Most of the Continentals wereissued as I.O.U.s or debts of the revolutionary government, to beredeemed in coinage later.11 Eventually, 200 million dollars inContinental scrip were issued. By the end of the war, the scrip hadbeen devalued so much that it was essentially worthless; but it stillevoked the wonder and admiration of foreign observers, because itallowed the colonists to do something that had never been donebefore. They succeeded in financing a war against a major power,with virtually no "hard" currency of their own, without taxing thepeople. Franklin wrote from England during the war, "the whole is amystery even to the politicians, how we could pay with paper thathad no previously fixed fund appropriated specifically to redeem it.This currency as we manage it is a wonderful machine." Thomas Painecalled it a "corner stone" of the Revolution:

Every stone in the Bridge, that has carried us over, seems tohave claim upon our esteem. But this was a corner stone, andits usefulness cannot be forgotten.12

The Continental's usefulness was forgotten, however, with a littlehelp from the Motherland ....

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Chapter 3 - Experiments in Utopia

Economic Warfare: The Bankers Counterattack

The British engaged in a form of economic warfare that would beused again by the bankers in the nineteenth century against Lincoln'sGreenbacks and in the twentieth century against a variety of othercurrencies: they attacked their competitor's currency and drove downits value. In the 1770s, when paper money was easy to duplicate, itsvalue could be diluted by physically flooding the market with coun-terfeit money. In modern times, as we'll see later, the same effect isachieved by another form of counterfeiting known as the "short sale."During the Revolution, Continentals were shipped in by the boatloadand could be purchased in any amount, essentially for the cost of thepaper on which they were printed. Thomas Jefferson estimated thatcounterfeiting added $200 million to the money supply, effectivelydoubling it; and later historians thought this figure was quite low.Zarlenga quotes nineteenth century historian J. W. Schuckers, whowrote, "The English Government which seems to have a mania forcounterfeiting the paper money of its enemies entered into competi-tion with private criminals."

The Continental was battered but remained viable. Schuckersquoted a confidential letter from an English general to his superiors,stating that "the experiments suggested by your Lordships have beentried, no assistance that could be drawn from the power of gold orthe arts of counterfeiting have been left untried; but still the currency .. . has not failed."13

The beating that did take down the Continental was fromspeculators — mostly northeastern bankers, stockbrokers andbusinessmen — who bought up the revolutionary currency at a fractionof its value, after convincing people it would be worthless after thewar. The Continental had to compete with other currencies, renderingit vulnerable to speculative attack in the same way that foreigncurrencies left to "float" in international markets are vulnerable today.(More on this in Chapters 21 and 22.) The Continental had to competewith the States' paper notes and the British bankers' gold and silvercoins. Gold and silver were regarded as far more valuable than thepaper promises of a revolutionary government that might not prevail,and the States' paper notes had the taxation power to back them.The problem might have been avoided by making the Continental thesole official currency, but the Continental Congress did not yet havethe power to enforce that sort of order. It had no courts, no police,

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Web of Debt

and no authority to collect taxes to redeem the notes or contract themoney supply. The colonies had just rebelled against taxation by theBritish and were not ready to commit to that burden from the newCongress.14 Speculators took advantage of these weaknesses by buyingup Continentals at a deeper and deeper discount until they becamevirtually worthless, giving rise to the expression "not worth aContinental."

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Chapter 4HOW THE GOVERNMENT WASPERSUADED TO BORROWITS OWN MONEY

The Witch happened to look into the child's eyes and saw howsimple the soul behind them was, and that the little girl did not knowof the wonderful power the Silver Shoes gave her. So the WickedWitch laughed to herself and thought, "I can still make her my slave,for she does not know how to use her power."

- The Wonderful Wizard ofOz,"The Search for the Wicked Witch"

Tust as Dorothy did not know the power of the silver shoes onJ her feet, so the new country's leaders failed to recognize the powerof the government-issued paper money Tom Paine had called "a cor-nerstone of the Revolution." The economic subservience King Georgecould not achieve by force was achieved by the British bankers bystealth, by persuading the American people that they needed the bank-ers' paper money instead of their own.

President John Adams is quoted as saying, "There are two ways toconquer and enslave a nation. One is by the sword. The other is bydebt." Sheldon Emry, expanding on this concept two centuries later,observed that conquest by the sword has the disadvantage that theconquered are likely to rebel. Continual force is required to keep themat bay. Conquest by debt can occur so silently and insidiously that theconquered don't even realize they have new masters. On the surface,nothing has changed. The country is merely under new management."Tribute" is collected in the form of debts and taxes, which the peoplebelieve they are paying for their own good. "Their captors," wroteEmry, "become their 'benefactors' and 'protectors.'. . . Without realiz-ing it, they are conquered, and the instruments of their own society

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are used to transfer their wealth to their captors and make the con-quest complete."1

Colonies in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries all had thesame purpose - to enhance the economy of the mother country. Thatwas how the mother country saw it, but the American colonists hadlong opposed any plan that would systematically drain their moneysupply off to England. The British had considered the idea of a landbank as far back as 1754, as a way to provide a circulating medium ofexchange for the colonies; but the idea was rejected by the colonistswhen they learned that the interest the bank generated would be sub-ject to appropriation by the King.2 It was only after the AmericanRevolution that British bankers and their Wall Street vassals succeededin pulling this feat off by stealth, by acquiring a controlling interest inthe stock of the new United States Bank.

The first step in that silent conquest was to discredit the paperscrip issued by the revolutionary government and the States. By theend of the Revolution, that step had been achieved. Rampant coun-terfeiting and speculation had so thoroughly collapsed the value ofthe Continental that the new country's leaders were completely disil-lusioned with what they called "unfunded paper." At the Constitu-tional Convention, Alexander Hamilton, Washington's new Secretaryof the Treasury, summed up the majority view when he said:

To emit an unfunded paper as the sign of value ought not tocontinue a formal part of the Constitution, nor ever hereafter tobe employed; being, in its nature, repugnant with abuses andliable to be made the engine of imposition and fraud.3

The Founding Fathers were so disillusioned with paper money thatthey simply omitted it from the Constitution. Congress was given thepower only to "coin money, regulate the value thereof," and "to bor-row money on the credit of the United States . . . ." An enormousloophole was thus left in the law. Creating and issuing money hadlong been considered the prerogative of governments, but the Consti-tution failed to define exactly what "money" was. Was "to coin money"an eighteenth-century way of saying "to create money"? Did thisinclude creating paper money? If not, who did have the power tocreate paper money? Congress was authorized to "borrow" money,but did that include borrowing paper money or just gold? The pre-sumption was that the paper notes borrowed from the bankers were"secured" by a sum of silver or gold; but in the illusory world of fi-nance, then as now, things were not always as they seemed ....

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The Bankers' Paper Money Comes inThrough the Back Door

While the Founding Fathers were pledging their faith in gold andsilver as the only "sound" money, those metals were quickly provinginadequate to fund the new country's expanding economy. The na-tional war debt had reached $42 million, with no silver or gold coinsavailable to pay it off. The debt might have been avoided if the gov-ernment had funded the war with Continental scrip that was stamped"legal tender," making it "money" in itself; but the revolutionary gov-ernment and the States had issued much of their paper money as prom-issory notes payable after the war. The notes represented debt, andthe debt had now come due. The bearers expected to get their gold,and the gold was not to be had. There was also an insufficient supplyof money for conducting trade. Tightening the money supply by lim-iting it to coins had quickly precipitated another depression. In 1786,a farmers' rebellion broke out in Massachusetts, led by Daniel Shays.Farmers brandishing pitchforks complained of going heavily into debtwhen paper money was plentiful. When it was no longer availableand debts had to be repaid in the much scarcer "hard" coin of theBritish bankers, some farmers lost their farms. The rebellion was de-fused, but visions of anarchy solidified the sense of an urgent need forboth a strong central government and an expandable money supply.

The solution of Treasury Secretary Hamilton was to "monetize"the national debt/ by turning it into a source of money for the coun-try.4 He proposed that a national bank be authorized to print upbanknotes and swap them for the government's bonds.5 The govern-ment would pay regular interest on the debt, using import duties andmoney from the sale of public land. Opponents said that acknowl-edging the government's debt at face value would unfairly rewardthe speculators who had bought up the country's I.O.U.s for a pit-tance from the soldiers, farmers and small businessmen who had ac-tually earned them; but Hamilton argued that the speculators hadearned this windfall for their "faith in the country." He thought thegovernment needed to enlist the support of the speculators, or theywould do to the new country's money what they had done to theContinental. Vernon Parrington, a historian writing in the 1920s, said:

1 To monetize means to convert government debt from securities evidencingdebt (bills, bonds and notes) into currency that can be used to purchase goodsand services.

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In developing his policies as Secretary of the Treasury, [Hamilton]applied his favorite principle, that government and propertymust join in a close working alliance. It was notorious that duringthe Revolution men of wealth had forced down the continental currencyfor speculative purposes; was it not as certain that they wouldsupport an issue in which they were interested? The privateresources of wealthy citizens would thus become an asset ofgovernment, for the bank would link "the interest of the State inan intimate connection with those of the rich individualsbelonging to it."6

Hamilton thought that the way to keep wealthy speculators fromdestroying the new national bank was to give them a financial stakein it. His proposal would do this and dispose of the government'scrippling debts at the same time, by allowing creditors to trade theirgovernment bonds or I.O.U.s for stock in the new bank.

Jefferson, Hamilton's chief political opponent, feared that givingprivate wealthy citizens an ownership interest in the bank would linktheir interests too closely with it. The government would be turnedinto an oligarchy, a government by the rich at war with the workingclasses. A bank owned by private stockholders, whose driving motivewas profit, would be less likely to be responsive to the needs of thepublic than one that was owned by the public and subject to publicoversight. Stockholders of a private bank would make their financialdecisions behind closed doors, without public knowledge or control.

But Hamilton's plan had other strategic advantages, and it wonthe day. Besides neatly disposing of a crippling federal debt andwinning over the "men of wealth," it secured the loyalty of theindividual States by making their debts too exchangeable for stock inthe new Bank. The move was controversial; but by stabilizing theStates' shaky finances, Hamilton got the States on board, thwartingthe plans of the pro-British faction that hoped to split them up andestablish a Northern Confederacy.7

Promoting the General Welfare:The American System Versus the British System

Hamilton's goal was first and foremost a strong federal government.He was the chief author of The Federalist Papers, which helped to getthe votes necessary to ratify the Constitution and formed the basis formuch of it. The Preamble to the Constitution made promoting the

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general welfare a guiding principle of the new Republic. Hamilton'splan for achieving this ideal was to nurture the country's fledglingindustries with protective measures such as tariffs (taxes placed onimports or exports) and easy credit provided through a national bank.Production and the money to finance it would all be kept "in house,"independent of foreign financiers.

Senator Henry Clay later called this the "American system" todistinguish it from the "British system" of "free trade."" Clay was astudent of Matthew Carey, a well-known printer and publisher whohad been tutored by Benjamin Franklin. What Clay called the "Brit-ish system" was rooted in the dog-eat-dog world of Thomas Hobbes,John Locke and Scottish economist Adam Smith. Smith maintainedin his 1776 book The Wealth of Nations that if every man pursued hisown greed, all would automatically come out right, as if by some "in-visible hand." Proponents of the American system rejected this laissez-faire approach in favor of guiding and protecting the young countrywith a system of rules and regulations. They felt that if the economywere left to the free market, big monopolies would gobble up smallentrepreneurs; foreign bankers and industrialists could exploit thecountry's labor and materials; and competition would force pricesdown, ensuring subjugation to British imperial interests.

The British model assumed that one man's gain could occur onlythrough another's loss. The goal was to reach the top of the heap byclimbing on competitors and driving them down. In the Americanvision of the "Common Wealth," all men would rise together byleavening the whole heap at once. A Republic of sovereign Stateswould work together for their mutual benefit, improving their collectivelot by promoting production, science, industry and trade, raising thestandard of living and the technological practice of all by cooperativeeffort.8 It was an idealistic reflection of the American dream, whichassumed the best in people and in human potential. You did not needto exploit foreign lands and people in pursuit of "free trade." LikeDorothy in The Wizard of Oz, you could find your heart's desire inyour own backyard.

That was the vision, but in the sort of negotiated compromise thathas long characterized politics, it got lost somewhere in the details.

11 The term "free trade" is used to mean trade between nations unrestricted bysuch things as import duties and trade quotas. Critics say that in more devel-oped nations, it results in jobs being "exported" abroad, while in less developednations, workers and the environment are exploited by foreign financiers.

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Hamilton Charters a Bank

Hamilton argued that to promote the General Welfare, the coun-try needed a monetary system that was independent of foreign mas-ters; and for that, it needed its own federal central bank. The bankwould handle the government's enormous war debt and create a stan-dard form of currency. Jefferson remained suspicious of Hamiltonand his schemes, but Jefferson also felt strongly that the new country'scapital city should be in the South, in his home state of Virginia.Hamilton (who did not care where the capital was) agreed on thelocation of the national capital in exchange for Jefferson's agreementon the bank.

When Hamilton called for a tax on whiskey to pay the interest onthe government's securities, however, he went too far. Jefferson's sup-porters were furious. In the type of political compromise still populartoday, President Washington proposed moving the capital even closerto Mt. Vernon. In 1789, Congress passed Hamilton's bill; but the Presi-dent still had to sign it. Washington was concerned about the contin-ued opposition of Jefferson and the Virginians, who thought the billwas unconstitutional. The public would have to use the bank, but thebank would not have to serve the public. Hamilton assured the Presi-dent that to protect the public, the bank would be required to retain apercentage of gold in "reserve" so that it could redeem its paper notesin gold or silver on demand. Hamilton was eloquent; and in 1791,Washington signed the bill into law.

The new banking scheme was hailed as a brilliant solution to thenation's economic straits, one that disposed of an oppressive nationaldebt, stabilized the economy, funded the government's budget, andcreated confidence in the new paper dollars. If the new Congress hadsimply printed its own paper money, speculators would havechallenged the currency's worth and driven down its value, just asthey had during the Revolution. To maintain public confidence in thenational currency and establish its stability, the new Republic neededthe illusion that its dollars were backed by the bankers' gold, andHamilton's bank successfully met that challenge. It got the countryup and running, but it left the bank largely in private hands, where itcould still be manipulated for private greed. Worse, the governmentended up in debt for money it could have generated itself, indeed shouldhave generated itself under the Constitution.

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How the Government Wound UpBorrowing Its Own Bonds

The charter for the new bank fixed its total initial capitalization atten million dollars. Eight million were to come from private stock-holders and two million from the government. But the governmentdid not actually have two million dollars, so the bank (now a char-tered lending institution) lent the government the money at interest.The bank, of course, did not have the money either. The whole thingwas sleight of hand.

The rest of the bank's shares were sold to the public, who boughtsome in hard cash and some in government securities (the I.O.U.s thathad been issued by the revolutionary government and the States). Thegovernment had to pay six percent interest annually on all the securitiesnow held by the bank - those exchanged for the "loan" of thegovernment's own money, plus the bonds accepted by the bank fromthe public. The bank's shareholders were supposed to pay one-fourththe cost of their shares in gold; but only the first installment was actuallypaid in hard money, totaling $675,000. The rest was paid in paperbanknotes. Some came from the Bank of Boston and the Bank of NewYork; but most of this paper money was issued by the new U.S. Bankitself and lent back to its new shareholders, through the magic of"fractional reserve" lending.

Within five years, the government had borrowed $8.2 million fromthe bank. The additional money was obviously created out of thin air,just as it would have been if the government had printed the moneyitself; but the government now owed principal and interest back tothe bank. To reduce its debt to the bank, the government was eventu-ally forced to sell its shares, largely to British financiers. Zarlengareports that Hamilton, to his credit, Hamilton opposed these sales.But the sales went through, and the first Bank of the United Stateswound up largely under foreign ownership and control.9

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Chapter 4 - How the Government Was Persuaded

When Political Duels Were Deadly

Hamilton was widely acclaimed as a brilliant writer, orator andthinker; but to Jefferson he remained a diabolical schemer, a Britishstooge pursuing a political agenda for his own ends. The first Bank ofthe United States was modeled on the Bank of England, the sameprivate bank against which the colonists had just rebelled. Years later,Jefferson would say that Hamilton had tricked him into approvingthe bank's charter. Jefferson had always suspected Hamilton of mo-narchical sympathies, and his schemes all seemed tainted with cor-ruption. Jefferson would go so far as to tell Washington he thoughtHamilton was a dangerous traitor.10 He complained to Madison aboutHamilton's bookkeeping:

I do not at all wonder at the condition in which the finances ofthe United States are found. Hamilton's object from the beginningwas to throw them into forms which should be utterlyindecipherable.11

Hamilton, for his part, thought little better of Jefferson. The feudbetween the two Founding Fathers resulted in the two-party system.Hamilton's party, the Federalists, favored a strong central governmentfunded by a centralized federal banking system. Jefferson's party, theDemocratic Republicans or simply Republicans, favored State and in-dividual rights. Jefferson's party was responsible for passing the Billof Rights.12

Hamilton had worked with Aaron Burr in New York City to es-tablish the Manhattan Company, which would eventually becomethe Chase Manhattan Bank. But Hamilton broke with Burr and theBoston Federalists when he learned that they were plotting to split thenorthern States from the Union. Hamilton's first loyalty was to theRepublic. Burr and his faction were working closely with British al-lies, who would later try to break up the Union by backing the Con-federacy in the Civil War. Hamilton swung his support to Jeffersonagainst Burr in the presidential election of 1800, and other patrioticFederalists did the same. The Federalist Party ceased to be a majornational party after the War of 1812, when the Boston Federalists sidedwith England, which lost.13

In 1801, Jefferson became President with Hamilton's support, whileBurr became Vice President. In 1804, when Burr sought the gover-norship of New York, he was again defeated largely throughHamilton's opposition. In the course of the campaign, Hamilton ac-

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Web of Debt

cused Burr in a newspaper article of being "a dangerous man" who"ought not to be trusted with the reins of government." WhenHamilton refused to apologize, Burr challenged him to a duel; and atthe age of 49, Hamilton was dead.

He remains a controversial figure, but Hamilton earned his placein history. He succeeded in stabilizing the shaky new economy andgetting the country on its feet, and his notions of "monetizing" debtand "federalizing" the banking system were major innovations. Herestored the country's credit, gave it a national currency, made iteconomically independent, and incorporated strong federal provisionsinto the Constitution that would protect and nurture the young countryaccording to a uniquely American system founded on "promoting theGeneral Welfare."

Those were his positive contributions, but Hamilton also left adarker legacy. Lurking behind the curtain in his new national bank, aprivileged class of financial middlemen were now legally entitled tosiphon off a perpetual tribute in the form of interest; and because theycontrolled the money spigots, they could fund their own affiliatedbusinesses with easy credit, squeezing out competitors and perpetuatingthe same class divisions that the "American system" was supposed tohave circumvented. The money power had been delivered into privatehands; and they were largely foreign hands, the same interests thathad sought to keep America in a colonial state, subservient to an eliteclass of oligarchical financiers.

Who were these foreign financiers, and how had they acquired somuch leverage? The Yellow Brick Road takes us farther back in history,back to when the concept of "usury" was first devised ....

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Chapter 5FROM MATRIARCHIES OFABUNDANCE TO PATRIARCHIES OF

DEBT

"I'm melting! My world! My world! Who would have thoughta little girl like you could destroy my beautiful wickedness!"

- The Wicked Witch of the West to Dorothy

When Frank Baum made his witch-vanquishing hero adefenseless young girl, he probably wasn't thinking aboutthe gender ramifications of economic systems; but Bernard Lietaer hasgiven the subject serious thought. In The Mystery of Money, he tracesthe development of two competing monetary schemes, one based onshared abundance, the other based on scarcity, greed and debt. Theformer characterized the matriarchal societies of antiquity. The lattercharacterized the warlike patriarchal societies that forcibly displacedthem.1

The issue wasn't really one of gender, of course, since every societyis composed half of each. The struggle was between two archetypalworld views. What Lietaer called the matriarchal and patriarchalsystems, Henry Clay called the American and British systems -cooperative abundance versus competitive greed. But that classificationisn't really accurate either, or fair to the British people, since their owneconomic conquerors also came from somewhere else, and the Britishsucceeded in withstanding the moneylenders' advances for hundredsof years. The "American system" devised in the American colonieswas actually foreshadowed in the tally system of medieval England.Lietaer traces this archetypal struggle back much farther than

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seventeenth century England. He traces it to the cradle of Westerncivilization in ancient Sumer.

When Money Could Grow

Located where Iraq is today, Sumer was a matriarchal agrarianeconomy with a financial system based on abundance and sharedwealth. One of the oldest known bronze coins was the Sumerianshekel, dating from 3,200 B.C. It was inscribed with the likeness ofthe Goddess Inanna-Ishtar, who bestowed kingship in Sumer and wasthe goddess of fertility, life and death. Inanna wore the horns of acow, the sacred animal that personified the Great Mother everywherein ancient myth. Hathor, the Egyptian equivalent, had cow ears anda human face and was the goddess of love, fertility and abundance.Her horn was the "cornucopeia" from which poured the earth's plenty.Isis, an even more powerful Egyptian mother figure, was portrayedwearing the horns of a cow with the sun disc between them. In India,the cow goddess was Kali, for whom cows are sacred to this day.Cows were also associated with money, since they were an early me-dium of exchange. The Sumerian word for "interest" was the same asthe word for "calf." It was natural to repay advances of cattle withan extra calf, because the unit of exchange itself multiplied over theloan period. This was also true for grain, for which the temples servedas storehouses. Grain advanced over the growing period was repaidwith extra grain after the harvest, in gratitude to God for multiplyingthe community's abundance.

The temples were public institutions that also served welfarefunctions, including the support of widows, orphans, the elderly andinfirm. Temples were endowed with land to provide food for theirdependent labor, and resources such as herds of sheep to provide woolfor their workshops. They operated autonomously, supportingthemselves not through taxation but by renting lands and workshopsand charging interest on loans. Goods were advanced to traders, whoreturned the value of the goods plus interest. The temples also actedas central banks. Sacrificial coins inscribed "debt to the Gods" werepaid to farmers in acknowledgment that wheat had been contributedto the temple. These coins were also lent to borrowers. When interestwas paid on the loans, it went back to the temple to fund thecommunity's economic and social programs and to cover losses frombad loans.2

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It was only after the Indo-European invasions of the second mil-lennium B.C. that moneylending became the private enterprise of theinfamous moneychangers. The Goddess Inanna was superseded asthe source of supreme kingship by the male god Enlil of Nippur, andthe matriarchal system of shared communal abundance was forciblydisplaced by a militant patriarchal system. The cornucopia of theHorned Goddess became the bull horns of the Thunder God, repre-senting masculine power, virility and force.3

In the temple system, the community extended credit and receivedthe money back with interest. In the system that displaced it, intereston debts went into private vaults to build the private fortunes of themoneychangers. Interest was thus transformed from a source of incomefor the community into a tool for impoverishing and enslaving peopleand nations. Unlike corn and cows, the gold the moneylenders lentwas inorganic. It did not "grow," so there was never enough to coverthe additional interest charges added to loans. When there wasinsufficient money in circulation to cover operating expenses, farmershad to borrow until harvest time; and the odd man out in the musicalchairs of finding eleven coins to repay ten wound up in debtor's prison.Historically, most slavery originated from debt.4

The Proscription Against Usury

"Usury" is now defined as charging "excess" interest, but origi-nally it meant merely charging a fee or interest for the use of money.Usury was forbidden in the Christian Bible, and anti-usury laws werestrictly enforced by the Catholic Church until the end of the MiddleAges. But in Jewish scriptures, which were later joined to the Chris-tian books as the "Old Testament," usury was forbidden only between"brothers." Charging interest to foreigners was allowed and evenencouraged.' The "moneychangers" thus came to be associated withthe Jews, but they were not actually the Jewish people. In fact theJewish people may have suffered more than any other people fromthe moneychangers' schemes, which were responsible for much anti-semitism.5

1 See Deuteronomy (New World Translation) —15:6 [Y]ou will certainly lendon pledge to many nations, whereas you yourself will not borrow; and you mustdominate over many nations, whereas over you they will not dominate. 23:19You must not make your brother pay interest .... 23:20 You may make aforeigner pay interest, but your brother you must not make pay interest.

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In the informative documentary video The Money Masters, BillStill and Patrick Carmack point out that when Jesus threw themoneychangers out of the temple, it was actually to protect the Jew-ish people. Half-shekels, the only pure silver coins of assured weightwithout the image of a pagan Emperor on them, were the only coinsconsidered acceptable for paying the Temple tax, a tribute to God.But half-shekels were scarce, and the moneychangers had corneredthe market for them. Like the modern banking cartel, they had mo-nopolized the medium of exchange and were exacting a charge for itsuse.6

Despite the injunctions in the New Testament, there were timeswhen the king needed money. In the Middle Ages, England was shortof gold, which had left during the Crusades. In 1087, when KingWilliam (Rufus) needed gold to do business with the French, hetherefore admitted the moneylenders, on condition that the interestbe demanded in gold and that half be paid to the king. But themoneylenders eventually became so wealthy at the expense of thepeople that the Church, with urgings from the Pope, prohibited themfrom taking interest; and in 1290, when they had lost their usefulnessto the king, most Jews were again expelled from the country. Thispattern, in which Jews as a people have been persecuted for theprofiteering of a few and have been used as scapegoats to divertattention from the activities of the rulers, has been repeated over thecenturies.

Money as a Simple Tally of Accounts

Meanwhile, England was faced with the problem of what to usefor money when the country was short of gold. The coinage systemwas commodity-based. It assumed that "money" was something hav-ing value in itself (gold or silver), which was bartered or traded forgoods or services of equal value. But according to Stephen Zarlenga,who has traced the origins and history of money in his revealing com-pendium The Lost Science of Money, the use of coins as money didnot originate with merchants trading in the marketplace. The firstknown coins were issued by governments; and their value was thevalue stamped on them, not the price at which the metal traded.Zarlenga quotes Aristotle, who said:

Money exists not by nature but by law. [It acts] as a measure [that]makes goods commensurate and equates them. . . . There mustthen be a unit, and that fixed by agreement.7

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Money was a mere fiat of the law. Fiat means "let it be done" inLatin. "Fiat money" is money that is legal tender by government decree.It is simply a "tally," something representing units of value that canbe traded in the market, a receipt for goods or services that can legallybe tendered for other goods or services. In Mandarin China, wherepaper money was invented in the ninth century, this sort of fiatcurrency funded a long and prosperous empire. Fiat money was alsoused successfully in medieval England, but in England it was made ofwood.

The English tally system originated with King Henry I, son ofWilliam the Conqueror, who took the throne in 1100 A.D. The printingpress had not yet been invented, and taxes were paid directly withgoods produced by the land. Under King Henry's innovative system,payment was recorded with a piece of wood that had been notchedand split in half. One half was kept by the government and the otherby the recipient. To confirm payment, the two halves were matchedto make sure they "tallied." Since no stick splits in an even manner,and since the notches tallying the sums were cut right through bothpieces of wood, the method was virtually foolproof against forgery.The tally system has been called the earliest form of bookkeeping.According to historian M. T. Clanchy in From Memory to WrittenRecord, England 1066-1307:

Tallies were ... a sophisticated and practical record of numbers.They were more convenient to keep and store than parchments,less complex to make, and no easier to forge.8

Only a few hundred tallies survive, Clanchy writes, but millionswere made. Tallies were used by the government not only as receiptsfor the payment of taxes but to pay soldiers for their service, farmersfor their wheat, and laborers for their labor. At tax time, the treasureraccepted the tallies in payment of taxes. By the thirteenth century,the financial market for tallies was sufficiently sophisticated that theycould be bought, sold, or discounted. Tallies were used by individualsand institutions to register debts, record fines, collect rents, and enterpayments for services rendered. In the 1500s, King Henry VIII gavethem the force of a national currency when he ordered that talliesmust be used to evidence the payment of taxes.9 That meant everyonehad to have them. In War Cycles, Peace Cycles, Richard Hoskinswrites that by the end of the seventeenth century, about 14 millionpounds' worth of tally-money was in circulation.10 Zarlenga cites ahistorian named Spufford, who said that English coinage had never

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Chapter 5 - From Matriarchies of Abundance

exceeded half a million pounds up to that time.11 The tally systemwas thus not a minor monetary experiment, as some commentatorshave suggested. During most of the Middle Ages, tallies may havemade up the bulk of the English money supply. The tally system wasin use for more than five centuries before the usury bankers' gold-based paper banknotes took root, helping to fund a long era of leisureand abundance that flowered into the Renaissance.

A Revisionist View of the Middle Ages

Modern schoolbooks generally portray the Middle Ages as a timeof poverty, backwardness, and economic slavery, from which thepeople were freed only by the Industrial Revolution; but reliable earlyhistorians painted a quite different picture. Thorold Rogers, a nine-teenth century Oxford historian, wrote that in the Middle Ages, "alabourer could provide all the necessities for his family for a year by work-ing 14 weeks." Fourteen weeks is only a quarter of a year! The rest ofthe time, some men worked for themselves; some studied; some fished.Some helped to build the cathedrals that appeared all over Germany,France and England during the period, massive works of art that werebuilt mainly with volunteer labor. Some used their leisure to visit theseshrines. One hundred thousand pilgrims had the wealth and leisureto visit Canterbury and other shrines yearly. William Cobbett, authorof the definitive History of the Reformation, wrote that WinchesterCathedral "was made when there were no poor rates; when everylabouring man in England was clothed in good woollen cloth; andwhen all had plenty of meat and bread . . . ." Money was available forinventions and art, supporting the Michelangelos, Rembrandts,Shakespeares, and Newtons of the period.12

The Renaissance is usually thought of as the flowering of the age;but the university system, representative government in a Parliament,the English common law system, and the foundations of a great liter-ary and spiritual movement were all in place by the thirteenth cen-tury, and education was advanced and widespread. As one scholarof the era observes:

We are very prone to consider that it is only in our time thatanything like popular education has come into existence. As amatter of fact, however, the education afforded to the people inthe little towns of the Middle Ages, represents an ideal ofeducational uplift for the masses such as has never been evendistantly approached in succeeding centuries. The Thirteenth

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Web of Debt

Century developed the greatest set of technical schools that theworld has ever known. . . . These medieval towns,. . . during thecourse of the building of their cathedrals, of their public buildingsand various magnificent edifices of royalty and for the nobility,succeeded in accomplishing such artistic results that the worldhas ever since held them in admiration.13

The common people had leisure, education, art, and economicsecurity. According to The Catholic Encyclopedia:

Economic historians like Rogers and Gibbins declare that duringthe best period of the Middle Ages - say, from the thirteenth tothe fifteenth century, inclusive - there was no such grindingand hopeless poverty, no such chronic semi-starvation in anyclass, as exists to-day among large classes in the great cities ....In the Middle Ages there was no class resembling our proletariat,which has no security, no definite place, no certain claim uponany organization or institution in the socio-economic organism.14

Richard Hoskins attributes this long period of prosperity to theabsence of usurious lending practices.15 Rather than having to borrowthe moneylenders' gold, the people relied largely on interest-free tallies.Unlike gold, wooden tallies could not become scarce; and unlike papermoney, they could not be counterfeited or multiplied by sleight of hand.They were simply a unit of measure, a tally of goods and servicesexchanged. The tally system avoided both the depressions resultingfrom a scarcity of gold and the inflations resulting from printing papermoney out of all proportion to the goods and services available forsale. Since the tallies came into existence along with goods and services,supply and demand increased together, and prices remained stable.The tally system provided an organic form of money that expandednaturally as trade expanded and contracted naturally as taxes werepaid. Bankers did not have to meet behind closed doors to set interestrates and manipulate markets to keep the money supply in balance. Itbalanced the way a checkbook balances, as a matter of simple math.The system of government-issued tallies kept the British economy stableand thriving until the mid-seventeenth century, when Oliver Cromwell,the "Pretender," needed money to fund a revolt against the Tudormonarchy ....

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Chapter 6PULLING THE STRINGS

OF THE KING:THE MONEYLENDERSTAKE ENGLAND

"Oz is a Great Wizard, and can take any form he wishes. . . . Butwho the real Oz is, when he is in his own form, no living person cantell."

- The Wonderful Wizard ofOz,"The Guardian of the Gates"

The image of puppet and puppeteer has long been a popularmetaphor for describing the Money Power pulling the stringsof government. Benjamin Disraeli, British Prime Minister from 1868to 1880, said, "The world is governed by very different personagesfrom what is imagined by those who are not behind the scenes."Nathan Rothschild, who controlled the Bank of England after 1820,notoriously declared:

I care not what puppet is placed upon the throne of England torule the Empire on which the sun never sets. The man who controlsBritain's money supply controls the British Empire, and I control theBritish money supply.

In the documentary video The Money Masters, narrator Bill Stilluses the puppet metaphor to describe the transfer of power from theroyal line of English Stuarts to the German royal House of Hanover inthe eighteenth century:

England was to trade masters: an unpopular King James II for ahidden cabal of Money Changers pulling the strings of their

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usurper, King William III, from behind the scenes. This symbioticrelationship between the Money Changers and the higher Britisharistocracy continues to this day. The monarch has no real powerbut serves as a useful shield for the Money Changers who rulethe City .... In its 20 June 1934 issue, New Britain magazine ofLondon cited a devastating assertion by former British PrimeMinister David Lloyd George, that "Britain is the slave of aninternational financial bloc."1

Where did these international financiers come from, and how hadthey achieved their enormous power? The moneylenders had beenevicted not only from England but from other European countries.They had regrouped in Holland, where they plotted their return; butthe English kings and queens staunchly resisted their advances. Theking did not need to borrow money when he had the sovereign rightto issue it himself. For a brief period in the 1500s, King Henry VIIIrelaxed the laws concerning usury when he broke away from theCatholic Church; but when Queen Mary took the throne, she tight-ened the laws again. The result was to seriously contract the moneysupply, but Queen Elizabeth I (Mary's half-sister) was determined toavoid the usury trap. She solved the problem by supplementing themoney supply with metal coins issued by the public treasury.2

The coins were made of metal, but their value came from the stampof the sovereign on them. This was established as a matter of legalprecedent in 1600, when Queen Elizabeth issued relatively worthlessbase metal coins as legal tender in Ireland. All other coins wereannulled and had to be returned to the mints. When the action waschallenged in the highest court of the land, the court ruled that it wasthe sovereign's sole prerogative to create the money of the realm. Whatthe sovereign declared to be money was money, and it was treason foranyone else to create it. Zarlenga states that this decision was so detestedby the merchant classes, the goldsmiths, and later the British East IndiaCompany that they worked incessantly to destroy it. According toAlexander Del Mar, writing in 1895:

This was done by undermining the Crown and then passing thefree coinage act of 1666, opening the way for the foreign elementto establish a new Monarch, and to reconstitute the moneyprerogative in the hands of a specific group of financiers - notelected, not representing society, and in large part not evenEnglish.3

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Britain thrived with government-issued currency (tallies and coins)until the king's sovereign authority was eroded by Cromwell's revoltin the mid-seventeenth century. The middle classes (the traders,manufacturers and small farmers) sided with Parliament underCromwell, who was a Puritan Protestant. The nobles and gentry sidedwith the King — Charles I, son of James I, who followed the Church ofEngland, the English Catholic Church. The Protestants were morelenient than the Catholics toward usury and toward the Dutchmoneylenders who practiced it. The moneylenders agreed to providethe funds to back Parliament, on condition that they be allowed backinto England and that the loans be guaranteed. That meant thepermanent removal of King Charles, who would have repudiated theloans had he gotten back into power. Charles' recapture, trial, andexecution were duly arranged and carried out to secure the loans.4

After Cromwell's death, Charles' son Charles II was invited toreturn; but Parliament had no intention of granting him the sovereignpower over the money supply enjoyed by his predecessors. When theking needed a standing army, Parliament refused to vote the funds,forcing him to borrow instead from the English goldsmiths at usuriousinterest rates. The final blow to the royal prerogative was the FreeCoinage Act of 1666, which allowed anyone to bring gold or silver tothe mint to have it stamped into coins. The power to issue money,which had for centuries been the sole right of the king, was transferredinto private hands, giving bankers the power to cause inflations anddepressions at will by issuing or withholding their gold coins.5

None of the earlier English kings or queens would have agreed tocharter a private central bank that had the power to create moneyand lend it to the government. Since they could issue money them-selves, they had no need for loans. But King William III, who fol-lowed Charles II, was a Dutchman and a tool of the powerfulWisselbank of Amsterdam ....

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A Dutch-bred King Charters the Bank of Englandon Behalf of Foreign Moneylenders

The man who would become King William III began his career asa Dutch aristocrat. He was elevated to Captain General of the DutchForces and then to Prince William of Orange with the backing of Dutchmoneylenders. His marriage was arranged to Princess Mary of York,eldest daughter of the English Duke of York, and they were marriedin 1677. The Duke, who was next in line to be King of England, diedin 1689, and William and Mary became King and Queen of England.

William was soon at war with Louis XIV of France. To finance hiswar, he borrowed 1.2 million pounds in gold from a group of money-lenders, whose names were to be kept secret. The money was raisedby a novel device that is still used by governments today: the lenderswould issue a permanent loan on which interest would be paid but the prin-cipal portion of the loan would not be repaid.6 The loan also came withother strings attached. They included:

(1) The lenders were to be granted a charter to establish a Bank ofEngland, which would issue banknotes that would circulate as thenational paper currency.

(2) The Bank would create banknotes out of nothing, with only afraction of them backed by coin. Banknotes created and lent to thegovernment would be backed mainly by government I.O.U.s, whichwould serve as the "reserves" for creating additional loans to privateparties.

(3) Interest of 8 percent would be paid by the government on itsloans, marking the birth of the national debt.

(4) The lenders would be allowed to secure payment on the na-tional debt by direct taxation of the people. Taxes were immediatelyimposed on a whole range of goods to pay the interest owed to theBank.7

The Bank of England has been called "the Mother of Central Banks."It was chartered in 1694 to William Paterson, a Scotsman who hadpreviously lived in Amsterdam.8 A circular distributed to attractsubscribers to the Bank's initial stock offering said, "The Bank hathbenefit of interest on all moneys which it, the Bank, creates out of nothing."9The negotiation of additional loans caused England's national debt togo from 1.2 million pounds in 1694 to 16 million pounds in 1698. By1815, the debt was up to 885 million pounds, largely due to the

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compounding of interest. The lenders not only reaped huge profits,but the indebtedness gave them substantial political leverage.

The Bank's charter gave the force of law to the "fractional reserve"banking scheme that put control of the country's money in a privatelyowned company. The Bank of England had the legal right to createpaper money out of nothing and lend it to the government at interest.It did this by trading its own paper notes for paper bonds represent-ing the government's promise to pay principal and interest back to theBank — the same device used by the U.S. Federal Reserve and othercentral banks today.

The Tally System Goes the Way of the Witches

After the Bank of England began issuing paper banknotes in the1690s, the government followed suit by issuing paper tallies againstfuture tax revenues. Paper was easily negotiable, making the papertallies competitive with private banknote money. For the next cen-tury, banknotes and tallies circulated interchangeably; but they werenot mutually compatible means of exchange. The bankers' papermoney expanded when credit expanded and contracted when loanswere canceled or "called," producing cycles of "tight" money anddepression alternating with "easy" money and inflation. Yet thesenotes appeared to be more sound than the government's tallies, be-cause they were "backed" by gold. They appeared to be sound until abank's customers got suspicious and all demanded their gold at thesame time, when there would be a run on the bank and it would haveto close its doors because it did not have enough gold to go around.Meanwhile, the government tallies were permanent money that re-mained stable and fixed. They made the bankers' paper money lookbad, and they had to go.

The tallies had to go for another reason. King William's right tothe throne was disputed, and the Dutch moneylenders who backedhim could be evicted if the Catholics got back in and forbademoneylending again. To make sure that did not happen, themoneylenders used their new influence to discount the tallies as moneyand get their own banknotes legalized as the money of the realm. Thetallies were called "unfunded" debt, while the Bank of England's papernotes were euphemistically labeled "funded" debt. Modern economichistorians call this shift a "Financial Revolution." According to ascholarly article published at Harvard University in 2002, "Tallies and

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departmental bills were issued to creditors in anticipation of annualtax revenues but were not tied to any specific revenue streams; hencethey were 'unfunded.'" When debt was "funded," on the other hand,"Parliament set aside specific revenues to meet interest payments, afeature that further enhanced confidence in lending to thegovernment."

What seems to have been overlooked is that until the mid-seventeenth century, the tallies did not need to be "funded" throughtaxes, since they were not debts. They were receipts for goods andservices, which could be used by the bearers in the payment of taxes. Itwas because the tallies were accepted and sometimes even required inthe payment of taxes that they retained a stable value as money. BeforeCromwell's Revolution, the king did not need to borrow, because he couldissue metal coins or wooden tallies at will to pay his bills. The Harvardauthors present a chart showing that in 1693, 100 percent of thegovernment's debt was "unfunded" (or paid in government tallies)."By the 1720s," they wrote, "over 90 percent of all governmentborrowing was long term and funded. This, in a nutshell, was theFinancial Revolution."10 In a nutshell, the "Financial Revolution"transferred the right to issue money from the government to private bankers.

In the end, the tallies met the same fate as the witches - death byfire. The medieval "witches" were mainly village healers, whose natu-ral herbs and potions competed with the male-dominated medical pro-fession and papal church. According to some modern estimates, ninemillion women were executed as witches for practicing natural herbalmedicine and "occult" religion.11 The tallies were similarly the moneyof the people, which competed with the money of the usury bankers.In 1834, after the passage of certain monetary reform acts, the tallysticks went up in flames in a huge bonfire started in a stove in theHouse of Lords. In an ironic twist, the fire quickly got out of control,and wound up burning down both the Palace of Westminster and theHouses of Parliament. It was symbolic of the end of an equitable eraof trade, with the transfer of power from the government to the Bank.12

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John Law Proposes a National Paper Money Supply

Popular acceptance of the bankers' privately-issued money schemeis credited to the son of a Scottish goldsmith named John Law, whohas been called "the father of finance." In 1705, Law published aseries of pamphlets on trade, money and banking, in which he claimedto have found the true "Philosopher's Stone," referring to a mythicaldevice used by medieval alchemists to turn base material into gold.Paper could be converted into gold, Law said, through the alchemy ofpaper money. He proposed the creation of a national paper moneysupply consisting of banknotes redeemable in "specie" (hard currencyin the form of gold or silver coins), which would be officially recognizedas money. Paper money could be expanded indefinitely and was muchcheaper to make than coins. To get public confidence, Law suggestedthat a certain fraction of gold should be kept on hand for the fewpeople who actually wanted to redeem their notes. The goldsmithshad already established through trial and error that specie couldsupport about ten times its value in paper notes. Thus a bank holding$10 in gold could safely print and lend about $100 in paper money.13This was the "secret" that the Chicago Federal Reserve said wasdiscovered by the goldsmiths: a bank could lend about ten times asmuch money as it actually had, because a trusting public, assumingtheir money was safely in the bank, would not come to collect morethan about 10 percent of it at any one time. (See Chapter 2.)

Law planned to open a National Bank in Scotland on the model ofthe Bank of England; but William Paterson, who held the charter forthe Bank of England, had the plan halted in the Scottish Parliament.Law then emigrated to France. He had another reason for leaving thecountry. Notorious for escapades of all sorts, he had gotten into aduel over a woman, which he had won; but he had wound up with amurder conviction in England. In France, Law was able to put hisbanking theories into practice, when the French chose him to head

1 A Ponzi scheme is a form of pyramid scheme in which investors are paid withthe money of later investors. Charles Ponzi was an engaging Boston ex-convictwho defrauded investors out of $6 million in the 1920s, in a scheme in which hepromised them a 400 percent return on redeemed postal reply coupons. For awhile, he paid earlier investors with the money of later investors; but eventuallyhe just collected without repaying. The scheme earned him ten years in jail.

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Chapter 6 - Pulling the Strings of the King

the "Banque Generale" in 1716. Like the Bank of England, it was aprivate bank chartered by the government for the purpose of creatingmoney in the form of paper notes.

It was also in France that Law implemented his most notorious"Ponzi scheme."' The "Mississippi bubble" involved the exchange ofa significant portion of French government debt for shares in a com-pany that had a monopoly on trade with French Louisiana. The ven-ture was called a "bubble" because most of the company's shares werebought on credit. In a huge speculative run, the shares went fromabout 500 French livres in 1719 to 10,000 livres by February 1720.They dropped back to 500 livres in September 1721. When the maniaended, the investors were completely broke; and Law was again onthe run.

The Mississippi bubble was short-lived because it was recognizedas a sham as soon as more investors demanded payment than therewere funds to pay them. Law's more enduring Ponzi scheme was theone that escaped detection, the "Philosopher's Stone" by which anational money supply could be created from government debt thathad been "monetized," or turned into paper money by private bankers.The reason this sleight of hand never got detected was that the central banknever demanded the return of its principal. If the bankers had demandedthe money back, the government would have had to levy taxes, rousingthe people and revealing what was up the wizard's sleeve. But thewily bankers just continued to roll over the debt and collect the interest,on a very lucrative investment that paid (and continues to pay) like aslot machine year after year.

This scheme became the basis of the banking system known as"central banking," which remains in use today. A private centralbank is chartered as the nation's primary bank and lends to the na-tional government. It lends the central bank's own notes (printedpaper money), which the government swaps for bonds (its promisesto pay) and circulates as a national currency. The government's debtis never paid off but is just rolled over from year to year, becoming thebasis of the national money supply.

Until the twentieth century, banks followed the model of the gold-smiths and literally printed their own supply of notes against theirown gold reserves. These were then multiplied many times over onthe "fractional reserve" system. The bank's own name was printedon the notes, which were lent to the public and the government. To-day, federal governments have taken over the printing; but in mostcountries the notes are still drawn on private central banks. In the

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Web of Debt

United States, they are printed by the U.S. Bureau of Engraving andPrinting at the request of the Federal Reserve, which "buys" them forthe cost of printing them and calls them "Federal Reserve Notes."14Today, however, there is no gold on "reserve" for which the notes canbe redeemed. Like the illusory ghosts in the Haunted House atDisneyland, the dollar is the fractal of a hologram, the reflection of adebt for something that does not exist.

The Tallies Leave Their Mark

Although the tallies were wiped off the books and fell down thememory hole, they left their mark on the modern financial system.The word "stock," meaning a financial certificate, comes from theMiddle English for the tally stick. Much of the stock in the Bank ofEngland was originally purchased with tally sticks. The holder of thestock was said to be the "stockholder," who owned "bank stock."One of the original stockholders purchased his shares with a stickrepresenting £25,000, an enormous sum at the time. A substantialshare of what would become the world's richest and most powerfulcorporation was thus bought with a stick of wood! According tolegend, the location of Wall Street, the New York financial district,was chosen because of the presence of a chestnut tree enormous enoughto supply tally sticks for the emerging American stock market.

Stock issuance was developed during the Middle Ages, as a wayof financing businesses when usury and interest-bearing loans wereforbidden. In medieval Europe, banks run by municipal or localgovernments helped finance ventures by issuing shares of stock in them.These municipal banks were large, powerful, efficient operations thatfought the moneylenders' private usury banks tooth and nail. Theusury banks prevailed in Europe only when the revolutionarygovernment of France was forced to borrow from the internationalbankers to finance the French Revolution (1789-1799), putting thegovernment heavily in their debt.

In the United States, the usury banks fought for control for twocenturies before the Federal Reserve Act established the banks' privatemonopoly in 1913. Today, the U.S. banking system is not a topic ofmuch debate; but in the nineteenth century, the fight for and againstthe Bank of the United States defined American politics. And thatbrings us back to Jefferson and his suspicions of foreign meddling . . .

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Chapter 7WHILE CONGRESS DOZES

IN THE POPPY FIELDS:JEFFERSON AND JACKSONSOUND THE ALARM

The Scarecrow and the Tin Woodman, not being made of flesh, werenot troubled by the scent of the flowers. "Run fast," said the Scarecrowto the Lion. "Get out of this deadly flower bed as soon as you can. Wewill bring the little girl with us, but if you should fall asleep you are toobig to be carried."

- The Wonderful Wizard ofOz,"The Deadly Poppy Field"

The foreign moneylenders who had conquered Britain setthe same debt traps in America, and they did it by the samemeans: they provoked a series of wars. British financiers funded theopposition to the American War for Independence, the War of 1812,and both sides of the American Civil War. In each case, war led toinflation, heavy government debt, and the chartering of a private"Bank of the United States" to fund the debt, delivering the power tocreate money to private interests. In each case, opposition to the bankwas opposed by a few alert leaders. Opposition to the First U.S. Bankwas led by Thomas Jefferson, the country's third President; while op-position to the Second U.S. Bank was led by Andrew Jackson, thecountry's seventh President. The two leaders did not have much elsein common — Jefferson was of the landed gentry, while Jackson wascalled the "roughshod President" — but they shared a deep suspicionof any private arrangement for issuing the national currency. Bothwere particularly concerned that the nation's banking system had

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fallen into foreign hands. Jefferson is quoted as saying:

If the American people ever allow the banks to control theissuance of their currency, first by inflation and then by deflation,the banks and corporations that will grow up around them willdeprive the people of all property, until their children will wakeup homeless on the continent their fathers occupied.

A similar wakeup call is attributed to Jackson, who told Congressin 1829:

If the American people only understood the rank injustice ofour money and banking system, there would be a revolutionbefore morning.

Jefferson was instrumental in Congress's refusal to renew thecharter of the first U.S. Bank in 1811. When the Bank was liquidated,Jefferson's suspicions were confirmed: 18,000 of the Bank's 25,000shares were owned by foreigners, mostly English and Dutch. Theforeign domination the Revolution had been fought to eliminate hadcrept back in through the country's private banking system.Congressman Desha of Kentucky, speaking in the House ofRepresentatives, declared that "this accumulation of foreign capitalwas one of the engines for overturning civil liberty," and that he had"no doubt King George III was a principal stockholder."1

When Congress later renewed the Bank's charter, Andrew Jacksonvetoed it. He too expressed concern that a major portion of the Bank'sshareholders were foreigners. He said in his veto bill:

Is there no danger to our liberty and independence in a bankthat in its nature has so little to bind it to our country? ... Of thecourse which would be pursued by a bank almost wholly ownedby the subjects of a foreign power, . . . there can be no doubt. . .Controlling our currency, receiving our public monies, andholding thousands of our citizens in dependence, it would be moreformidable and dangerous than a naval and military power of theenemy.

Who were these "subjects of a foreign power" who owned thebank? In The History of the Great American Fortunes, published in1936, Gustavus Myers pointed to the formidable British banking dy-nasty the House of Rothschild. Myers wrote:

Under the surface, the Rothschilds long had a powerful influencein dictating American financial laws. The law records showthat they were the power in the old Bank of the United States.2

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Return of the King's Bankers

Like the German Hanoverian kings, the Rothschild banking em-pire was British only in the sense that it had been in England for along time. Its roots were actually in Germany. The House of Rothschildwas founded in Frankfurt in the mid-eighteenth century, when amoneylender named Mayer Amschel Bauer changed his name toAmschel Rothschild and fathered ten children. His five sons weresent to the major capitals of Europe to open branches of the familybanking business. Nathan, the most astute of these sons, went to Lon-don, where he opened the family branch called N. M. Rothschild &Sons. Nathan's brothers managed N. M. Rothschild's branches in Paris,Vienna, Berlin and Naples.

The family fortunes got a major boost in 1815, when Nathan pulledoff the mother of all insider trades. He led British investors to believethat the Duke of Wellington had lost to Napoleon at the Battle ofWaterloo. In a matter of hours, British government bond prices plum-meted. Nathan, who had advance information, then swiftly boughtup the entire market in government bonds, acquiring a dominant hold-ing in England's debt for pennies on the pound. Over the course ofthe nineteenth century, N. M. Rothschild would become the biggestbank in the world, and the five brothers would come to control mostof the foreign-loan business of Europe. "Let me issue and control anation's money," Nathan Rothschild boasted in 1838, "and I care notwho writes its laws."3

In 1811, when the U.S. Congress declined to renew the charter ofthe first U.S. Bank, Nathan Rothschild already possessed substantialpolitical clout in England and was lending money to the U.S.government and certain States. "Either the application for renewal ofthe Charter is granted," he is reported to have threatened, "or theUnited States will find itself in a most disastrous war."4 When thecharter was not granted, the United States did find itself in anotherwar with England, the War of 1812.

War again led to inflation and heavy government debt. This andan inability to collect taxes were the reasons given for chartering theSecond Bank of the United States as a private national bank. Thetwenty-year charter was signed by President James Madison in 1816.It authorized the Bank and its branches to issue the nation's money inthe form of bank notes, again shifting the power to create the nationalmoney supply into private hands.

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Jefferson Realizes Too Late the Need for aNational Paper Currency Issued by the Government

Jefferson was out of town when the Constitution was drafted, serv-ing as America's minister to France during the dramatic period lead-ing up to the French Revolution. But even if he had been there, hewould probably have gone along with the majority and voted to omitpaper money from the Constitution. After watching the national debtmushroom, he wrote to John Taylor in 1798, "I wish it were possibleto obtain a single amendment to our constitution . . . taking from thefederal government the power to borrow money. I now deny theirpower of making paper money or anything else a legal tender."5

It would be several decades before Jefferson realized that the vil-lain was not paper money itself. It was private debt masquerading aspaper money, a private debt owed to bankers who were merely "pre-tending to have money." Jefferson wrote to Treasury Secretary Gallatinin 1815:

The treasury, lacking confidence in the country, delivered itselfbound hand and foot to bold and bankrupt adventurers and bankerspretending to have money, whom it could have crushed at any moment.

Jefferson wrote to John Eppes in 1813, "Although we have so fool-ishly allowed the field of circulating medium to be filched from us by privateindividuals, I think we may recover it ... . The states should be asked totransfer the right of issuing paper money to Congress, in perpetuity." Hetold Eppes, "the nation may continue to issue its bills [paper notes] asfar as its needs require and the limits of circulation allow. Those limitsare understood at present to be 200 millions of dollars."6

Writing to Gallatin in 1803, Jefferson said of the private nationalbank, "This institution is one of the most deadly hostility against theprinciples of our Constitution .... [S]uppose a series of emergenciesshould occur .... [A]n institution like this ... in a critical momentmight overthrow the government." He asked, "Could we start towardindependently using our own money to form our own bank?"

The Constitution gave Congress the power only to "coin money,"but Jefferson argued that Constitutions could be amended. He wroteto Samuel Kercheval in 1816:

Some men look at constitutions with sanctimonious reverence,and deem them like the ark of the Covenant, too sacred to betouched. They ascribe to the men of the preceding age a wisdom

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more than human, and suppose what they did to be beyondamendment . . . [L]aws and institutions must go hand in handwith the progress of the human mind. . . . [A]s that becomesmore developed, more enlightened, as new discoveries are made,institutions must advance also, to keep pace with the times. . . .We might as well require a man to wear still the coat whichfitted him when a boy as civilized society to remain forever underthe regimen of their barbarous ancestors.7

During the congressional debates over a Second U.S. Bank, Sena-tor John Calhoun proposed a plan for a truly "national" bank alongthe lines suggested by Jefferson. A wholly government-owned na-tional bank could issue the nation's own credit directly, without hav-ing to borrow from a private bank that issued it. This plan was laterendorsed by Senator Henry Clay, but it would be several more de-cades before the Civil War would provide the pretext for AbrahamLincoln to authorize Congress to issue its own money. The SecondU.S. Bank chartered in 1816 was 80 percent privately owned.8

Jackson Battles the Hydra-headed Monster

Andrew Jackson was a hero of the War of 1812 and a leader withenormous popular appeal. He was the first of the "unlettered Scare-crows" to reach the White House, to be followed by the even mightierAbraham Lincoln (who actually looked like a Scarecrow). Jacksonreceived an honorary degree from Harvard College in 1833, but it wasover the objection of Harvard alumnus John Quincy Adams, who calledhim "a barbarian who could not write a sentence of grammar andhardly could spell his own name." Perhaps; but "Old Hickory" trulybelieved in the will of the democratic majority, and he spoke to thecommon people in a way they could understand.

After the Federalists ceased to be a major national party, the Demo-cratic-Republicans dominated the political scene alone for a time. In1824, four candidates ran for President as Democratic-Republicansfrom different States: Andrew Jackson, John Quincy Adams, WilliamCrawford, and Henry Clay. Jackson easily won the popular vote, buthe did not have enough electoral votes to win the Presidency, so thematter went to the House of Representatives, where Clay threw hissupport to Adams, who won. But popular sentiment remained withJackson, who won by a wide margin against Adams in the election of1828.

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Jackson believed in a strong Presidency and a strong union. Hestood up to the bankers on the matter of the bank, which he viewed asoperating mainly for the upper classes at the expense of working people.He warned in 1829:

The bold efforts the present bank has made to control thegovernment are but premonitions of the fate that awaits theAmerican people should they be deluded into a perpetuation ofthis institution or the establishment of another like it.

Whether Congress itself had the right to issue paper money, Jack-son said, was not clear; but "If Congress has the right under the Con-stitution to issue paper money, it was given them to be used by them-selves, not to be delegated to individuals or to corporations." His grimpremonitions about the Bank appeared to be confirmed, when mis-management under its first president led to financial disaster, depres-sion, bankruptcies, and unemployment. But the Bank began to flour-ish under its second president, Nicholas Biddle, who petitioned Con-gress for a renewal of its charter in 1832. Jackson, who was then upfor re-election, expressed his views to this bid in no uncertain terms."You are a den of vipers and thieves," he railed at a delegation ofbankers discussing the Bank Renewal Bill. "I intend to rout you out,and by the eternal God, I will rout you out." He called the bank "ahydra-headed monster eating the flesh of the common man." Heswore to do battle with the monster and to slay it or be slain by it.9

In the 1832 election, Jackson ran on the Democratic Party ticketagainst Henry Clay, whose party was now called the NationalRepublican Party. Its members considered themselves "nationalists"because they saw the country as a nation rather than a looseconfederation of States, and because they promoted strong nation-building measures such as the construction of inter-state roads. Clayadvocated a strongly protectionist platform that kept productivity andfinancing within the country, allowing it to grow up "in its ownbackyard," free from economic attack from abroad. It was Clay whofirst called this approach the "American system" to distinguish it fromthe "British system" of "free trade." The British system was supportedby Jackson and opposed by Clay, who thought it would open thecountry to exploitation by foreign financiers and industrialists. Toprevent that, Clay advocated a tariff favoring domestic industry,congressionally-financed national improvements, and a national bank.

More than three million dollars were poured into Clay's campaign,then a huge sum; but Jackson again won by a landslide. He had the

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Web of Debt

vote of the people but not of Congress, which proceeded to pass theBank Renewal Bill. Jackson as promptly vetoed it. Showing howeloquent the self-taught could be, he said in his veto bill:

There are no necessary evils in government. Its evils exist onlyin its abuses. If it would confine itself to equal protection, and,as Heaven does its rains, shower its favor alike on the high andthe low, the rich and the poor, it would be an unqualified blessing.In the act before me there seems to be a wide and unnecessarydeparture from these just principles. Many of our rich men havenot been content with equal protection and equal benefits, buthave besought us to make them richer by act of Congress. ... Ifwe can not at once, in justice to interests vested underimprovident legislation, make our Government what it ought tobe, we can at least take a stand against all new grants ofmonopolies and exclusive privileges, against any prostitution ofour Government to the advancement of the few at the expenseof the many ....

Jackson succeeded in vetoing the bill, but he knew that his battlewith the Bank was just beginning. "The hydra of corruption is onlyscotched, not dead," he exclaimed. Boldly taking the hydra by thehorns, he ordered his new Treasury Secretary to start transferring thegovernment's deposits from the Second U.S. Bank into state banks.When the Secretary refused, Jackson fired him and appointed another.When that Secretary refused, Jackson appointed a third. When thethird Secretary proceeded to do as he was told, Jackson was trium-phant. "I have it chained," he said of the banking monster. "I amready with screws to draw every tooth and then the stumps." ButBiddle and his Bank were indeed only scotched, not dead. Biddleused his influence to get the Senate to reject the new Secretary's nomi-nation. Then he threatened to cause a national depression if the Bankwere not rechartered. Biddle openly declared:

Nothing but widespread suffering will produce any effect on Congress.. . . Our only safety is in pursuing a steady course of firm[monetary] restriction - and I have no doubt that such a coursewill ultimately lead to restoration of the currency and the re-charter of the Bank.

Biddle proceeded to make good on his threat by sharply contract-ing the money supply. Old loans were called in and new ones wererefused. A financial panic ensued, followed by a deep economic de-pression. Biddle blamed it all on Jackson, and the newspapers picked

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Chapter 7 - While Congress Dozes in the Poppy Fields

up the charge. Jackson was officially censured by a Senate resolution.The tide turned, however, when the Governor of Pennsylvania (wherethe Bank was located) came out in support of the President and stronglycritical of the Bank; and Biddle was caught boasting in public aboutthe Bank's plan to crash the economy. In April 1834, the House ofRepresentatives voted 134 to 82 against re-chartering the Bank, and aspecial committee was established to investigate whether it had causedthe crash.10

In January 1835, in what may have been his finest hour, Jacksonpaid off the final installment on the national debt. He had succeededin doing something that had never been done before and has not beendone since: he reduced the national debt to zero and accumulated asurplus.' The following year, the charter for the Second Bank of theUnited States expired; and Biddle was later arrested and charged withfraud. He was tried and acquitted, but he died while tied up in civilsuits.

Jackson had beaten the Bank. His personal secretary, NicholasTrist, called it "the crowning glory of A.J.'s life and the most impor-tant service he has ever rendered his country." The Boston Post com-pared it to Jesus throwing the moneychangers out of the Temple. ButJackson, like Jesus, found that taking on the moneychangers was riskybusiness. "The Bank is trying to kill me," he said, "but I will kill it!"He was the victim of an assassination attempt, but both the assassin'sshots missed.11

Abraham Lincoln would not be so lucky ....

' Recall that President Clinton's balancing of the budget did not includepaying off the national debt, which stood at $5 trillion in 2000.

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Chapter 8SCARECROW WITH A BRAIN:LINCOLN FOILS THE BANKERS

"With the thoughts you'd be thinkin',"You could be another Lincoln,"If you only had a brain

- Dorothy to the Scarecrow (1939 film)

Like the Scarecrow who wound up ruling Oz, AbrahamLincoln went from hayseed to the top of his class by sheernative wit and determination, epitomizing the American dream. Fol-lowing in the footsteps of Andrew Jackson, he rose from the back-woods to the Presidency without ever going to college. Lincoln'smother could barely read. Like Jackson, Lincoln risked life and limbbattling the Money Power; but the two Presidents had quite differentideas about how it should be done. Jackson had captured the popularimagination by playing on the distrust of big banks and foreign bank-ers; but in throwing out the national bank and its foreign controllers,he had thrown out Hamilton's baby with the bath water, leaving thebanks in unregulated chaos. There was now no national currency.Banks printed their own notes and simply had to be trusted to redeemthem in specie (or gold bullion). When trust faltered, there would be arun on the bank and the bank would generally wind up closing itsdoors. Bank-fed speculation had collapsed much of the factory sys-tem; and federal support for road, canal and railway constructionwas halted, halting the pioneer settlement of the West along with it.

Lincoln was only 24 when he joined the fight as an Illinois statelegislator to continue the pioneering internal improvements begun byHenry Clay and the National Republicans. The National Republicanswere now called "Whigs" after the British Whigs, the party in opposi-tion to the King. Jackson had taken such unprecedented powers to

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himself that he had come to be called "King Andrew," making theAmerican opposition party Whigs by extension. The "Illinois Improve-ment Program" of Lincoln's home state centered on construction ofthe Illinois-Michigan canal and a 3,000-mile railroad system. The re-sult was an unbroken transportation line from the Hudson River tothe Great Lakes and the Mississippi River. Lincoln also joined themovement to restore the country's financial, industrial and politicalindependence by restoring a national bank and a national currency.1

When the Whig Party disintegrated over the question of slavery,Lincoln joined the Republican Party, which was created in 1854 tooppose the expansion of slavery into Kansas. It opposed the politicalcontrol exerted by southern slave owners over the national government;maintained that free-market labor was superior to slavery; promisedfree homesteads to farmers; and advanced a progressive visionemphasizing higher education, banking, railroads, industry and cities.2Lincoln became the first Republican candidate to be elected President.

Both Jackson and Lincoln were targets of assassination attempts,but for Lincoln they started before he was even inaugurated. He hadto deal with treason, insurrection, and national bankruptcy withinthe first days of taking office. Considering the powerful forces arrayedagainst him, his achievements in the next four years were nothingshort of phenomenal. His government built and equipped the largestarmy in the world, smashed the British-financed insurrection, abolishedslavery, and freed four million slaves. Along the way, the countrymanaged to become the greatest industrial giant the world had everseen. The steel industry was launched, a continental railroad systemwas created, the Department of Agriculture was established, a newera of farm machinery and cheap tools was promoted, a system offree higher education was established through the Land Grant CollegeSystem, land development was encouraged by passage of a HomesteadAct granting ownership privileges to settlers, major governmentsupport was provided to all branches of science, the Bureau of Mineswas organized, governments in the Western territories were established,the judicial system was reorganized, labor productivity increased by50 to 75 percent, and standardization and mass production waspromoted worldwide.

How was all this accomplished, with a Treasury that wascompletely broke and a Congress that hadn't been paid themselves?As Benjamin Franklin might have said, "That is simple." Lincolntapped into the same cornerstone that had gotten the impoverishedcolonists through the American Revolution and a long period of

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internal development before that: he authorized the government toissue its own paper fiat money. National control was reestablishedover banking, and the economy was jump-started with a 600 percentincrease in government spending and cheap credit directed atproduction.3 A century later, Franklin Roosevelt would use the sametechniques to pull the country through the Great Depression; butRoosevelt's New Deal would be financed with borrowed money.Lincoln's government used a system of payment that was closer to themedieval tally. Officially called United States Notes, these nineteenthcentury tallies were popularly called "Greenbacks" because they wereprinted on the back with green ink (a feature the dollar retains today).They were basically just receipts acknowledging work done or goodsdelivered, which could be traded in the community for an equivalentvalue of goods or services. The Greenbacks represented man-hoursrather than borrowed gold. Lincoln is quoted as saying, "The wages ofmen should be recognized as more important than the wages of money."Over 400 million Greenback dollars were printed and used to paysoldiers and government employees, and to buy supplies for the war.

The Greenback system was not actually Lincoln's idea, but whenpressure grew in Congress for the plan, he was quick to endorse it.The South had seceded from the Union soon after his election in 1860.To fund the War between the States, the Eastern banks had offered aloan package that was little short of extortion - $150 million advancedat interest rates of 24 to 36 percent. Lincoln knew the loan would beimpossible to pay off.4 He took the revolutionary approach becausehe had no other real choice. The government could either print itsown money or succumb to debt slavery to the bankers.

The Wizard Behind Lincoln's Curtain

Lincoln's economic advisor was Henry Carey, the son of MatthewCarey, the printer and publisher mentioned earlier who was tutoredby Benjamin Franklin and tutored Henry Clay. Clay was the leader ofthe Philadelphia-based political faction propounding the "Americansystem" of economics. In the 1920s, historian Vernon Parrington calledHenry Carey "our first professional economist." Thomas DiLorenzo,a modern libertarian writer, has called him "Lincoln's (and theRepublican Party's) economic guru." Carey was known around theworld during the Civil War and its aftermath, and his writings weretranslated into many European and Asian languages.

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According to Parrington, Carey began his career as a classicallaissez-faire economist of the British school; but he came to believe thatAmerican industrial development was being held back by a falsefinancial policy imposed by foreign financiers. To recognize only goldbullion as money gave the bankers who controlled the gold a lock onthe money supply and the economy. The price of gold was establishedin a world market, and the flow of bullion was always toward thegreat financial centers that were already glutted with it. To throw theworld's money into a common pool that drained into these financialcapitals was to make poorer countries the servants of these hubs. Sincenegative trade balances were settled in gold, gold followed the balanceof trade; and until America could build up an adequate domesticeconomy, its gold would continue to drain off, leaving too little moneyfor its internal needs.

Carey came to consider "free trade" and the "gold standard" tobe twin financial weapons forged by England for its own economicconquest. His solution to the gold drain was for the government tocreate an independent national currency that was non-exportable,one that would remain at home to do the country's own work. Headvocated a currency founded on "national credit," something hedefined as "a national system based entirely on the credit of the gov-ernment with the people, not liable to interference from abroad." Likethe wooden tally, this paper money would simply be a unit of accountthat tallied work performed and goods delivered. Carey also sup-ported expanding the monetary base with silver.5

Carey's theories were an elaboration of the "American system"propounded by Henry Clay and the National Republican Party. Theirplatform was to nurture local growth and development using localraw materials and local money, freeing the country from dependenceon foreign financing. Where Jackson's Democratic Party endorsed"free trade," the National Republican Party sought another sort offreedom, the right to be free from exploitation by powerful foreignfinanciers and industrialists. Free traders wanted freedom from gov-ernment. Protectionists looked to the government to keep them freefrom foreign marauders. Clay's protectionist platform included:

• Government regulation of banking and credit to deter speculationand encourage economic development;

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• Government support for the development of science, public

education, and national infrastructure;'

• Regulation of privately-held infrastructure to ensure it met thenation's needs;

• A program of government-sponsored railroads, and scientific and

other aid to small farmers;

• Taxation and tariffs to protect and promote productive domestic

activity; and

• Rejection of class wars, exploitation and slavery, physical or eco-

nomic, in favor of a "Harmony of Interests" between capital andlabor.6

Lincoln also endorsed these goals. He eliminated slavery, estab-lished a national bank, and implemented and funded national educa-tion, national transportation, and federal development of business andfarming. He also set very high tariffs. He made this common-senseobservation:

I don't know much about the tariff, but I know this much: Whenwe buy manufactured goods abroad we get the goods and theforeigner gets the money. When we buy the manufactured goodsat home, we get both the goods and the money.

The Legal Tender Acts and the Legal Tender Cases

The Greenback system undergirded Lincoln's program of domes-tic development by providing a much-needed national paper moneysupply. After Jackson had closed the central bank, the only papermoney in circulation were the banknotes issued privately by individualstate banks; and they were basically just private promises to pay laterin hard currency (gold or silver). The Greenbacks, on the other hand,were currency. They were "legal tender" in themselves, money thatdid not have to be repaid later but was "as good as gold" in trade.Like metal coins, the Greenbacks were permanent money that couldcontinue to circulate in their own right. The Legal Tender Acts of

1 Infrastructure is defined as "the set of interconnected structural elements thatprovide the framework for supporting the entire structure." In a country, it con-sists of the basic facilities needed for the country's functioning, providing apublic framework under which private enterprise can operate safely and effi-ciently.

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Chapter 8 - Scarecrow with a Brain

1862 and 1863 made all the "coins and currency" issued by the U.S.Government "legal tender for all debts, public and private." Govern-ment-issued paper notes were made a legal substitute for gold andsilver, even for the payment of pre-existing debts.

In the twentieth century, the Legal Tender Statute (31 U.S.C.Section 5103) applied this definition of "legal tender" to Federal ReserveNotes; but it was an evident distortion of the intent of the originalActs, which made only currency issued by the United States Governmentlegal tender. Federal Reserve Notes are issued by the Federal Reserve,a private banking corporation; but that rather obvious discrepancywas slipped past the American people with the smoke-and-mirrorsillusion that the Federal Reserve was actually federal.

Did the Greenbacks Cause Price Inflation?

Lincoln's Greenback program has been blamed for the price infla-tion occurring during the Civil War, but according to Irwin Unger inThe Greenback Era (1964): "It is now clear that inflation would haveoccurred even without the Greenback issue."7 War is always an infla-tionary venture. What forced prices up during the Civil War wasactually a severe shortage of goods. Zarlenga quotes historian J. G.Randall, who observed in 1937:

The threat of inflation was more effectively curbed during the CivilWar than during the First World War. Indeed as John K. Galbraithhas observed, "it is remarkable that without rationing, pricecontrols, or central banking, [Treasury Secretary] Chase couldhave managed the federal economy so well during the CivilWar."8

Greenbacks were not the only source of funding for the Civil War.Bonds (government I.O.U.s) were also issued, and these too increasedthe money supply, since the banks that bought the bonds were alsoshort of gold and had no other way of paying for the bonds than withtheir own newly-issued banknotes. The difference between the gov-ernment-issued Greenbacks and the bank-issued banknotes was thatthe Greenbacks were debt-free legal tender that did not have to bepaid back. As Thomas Edison reasonably observed in an interviewreported in The New York Times in 1921:

If the Nation can issue a dollar bond it can issue a dollar bill.The element that makes the bond good makes the bill good also.

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Web of Debt

The difference between the bond and the bill is that the bondlets the money broker collect twice the amount of the bond andan additional 20%. Whereas the currency, the honest sortprovided by the Constitution pays nobody but those whocontribute in some useful way. It is absurd to say our Countrycan issue bonds and cannot issue currency. Both are promises topay, but one fattens the usurer and the other helps the People.

The Greenbacks did lose value as against gold during the war, butthis was to be expected, since gold was a more established currencythat people naturally preferred. Again the problem for the Greenbackwas that it had to compete with other forms of currency. People re-mained suspicious of paper money, and the Greenback was not ac-cepted for everything. Particularly, it could not be used for thegovernment's interest payments on its outstanding bonds. Zarlenganotes that by December 1865, the Greenback was still worth 68 centsto one gold dollar, not bad under the circumstances. Meanwhile, theConfederates' paper notes had become devalued so much that theywere worthless. The Confederacy had made the mistake of issuingfiat money that was not legal tender but was only a bond or promiseto pay after the War. As the defeat of the Confederacy became moreand more certain, its currency's value plummeted.9

In 1972, the United States Treasury Department was asked tocompute the amount of interest that would have been paid if the $400million in Greenbacks had been borrowed from the banks instead.According to the Treasury Department's calculations, in his short ten-ure Lincoln saved the government a total of $4 billion in interest, justby avoiding this $400 million loan.10

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Chapter 9LINCOLN LOSES THE BATTLEWITH THE MASTERSOF EUROPEAN FINANCE

"When she knows you are in the country of the Winkies she will findyou, and make you all her slaves."

"Perhaps not," said the Scarecrow, "for we mean to destroy her."

"Oh, that is different," said the Guardian of the Gates. "No onehas ever destroyed her before, so I naturally thought she would makeslaves of you, as she has of the rest. But take care. She is wicked andfierce, and may not allow you to destroy her."

- The Wonderful Wizard ofOz,"The Search for the Wicked Witch"

The Confederacy was not the only power that was bent ondestroying Lincoln's Union government. Lurking behind thecurtain pulling the strings of war were powerful foreign financiers.Otto von Bismarck, Chancellor of Germany in the second half of thenineteenth century, called these puppeteers "the masters of Europeanfinance." He wrote:

I know of absolute certainty, that the division of the United Statesinto federations of equal force was decided long before the CivilWar by the high financial powers of Europe. These bankerswere afraid that the United States, if they remained in one blockand as one nation, would attain economic and financialindependence, which would upset their financial dominationover Europe and the world. Of course, in the "inner circle" ofFinance, the voice of the Rothschilds prevailed. They saw anopportunity for prodigious booty if they could substitute twofeeble democracies, burdened with debt to the financiers, ... inplace of a vigorous Republic sufficient unto herself. Therefore,they sent their emissaries into the field to exploit the question of

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slavery and to drive a wedge between the two parts of the Union.

. . . The rupture between the North and the South became inevitable;the masters of European finance employed all their forces to bring itabout and to turn it to their advantage.1

The European bankers wanted a war that would return the UnitedStates to its colonial status, but they were not necessarily interested inpreserving slavery. Slavery just meant that the owners had to feedand care for their workers. The bankers preferred "the European plan"- capital could exploit labor by controlling the money supply, while lettingthe laborers feed themselves. In July 1862, this ploy was revealed in anotorious document called the Hazard Circular, which was circulatedby British banking interests among their American banking counter-parts. It said:

Slavery is likely to be abolished by the war power and chattelslavery destroyed. This, I and my European friends are glad of,

for slavery is but the owning of labor and carries with it the care ofthe laborers, while the European plan, led by England, is that capitalshall control labor by controlling wages. This can be done bycontrolling the money. The great debt that capitalists will see to itis made out of the war, must be used as a means to control thevolume of money. To accomplish this, the bonds must be used asa banking basis. . . . It will not do to allow the greenback, as it iscalled, to circulate as money any length of time, as we cannot controlthat.2

The system the bankers wanted to preserve was what Henry Clayand Henry Carey had called the "British system," with its twinweapons of "free trade" and the "gold standard" keeping the lessindustrialized countries in a colonial state, supplying raw materialsto Britain's factories. The American South had already been subjugatedin this way, and the bankers had now set their sights on the North, tobe reeled in with usurious war loans; but Lincoln had refused to takethe bait. The threat the new Greenback system posed to the bankers'game was reflected in an editorial that is of uncertain origin but wasreportedly published in the The London Times in 1865. It warned:

[I]f that mischievous financial policy, which had its origin in theNorth American Republic, should become indurated down to afixture, then that Government will furnish its own money withoutcost. It will pay off debts and be without a debt. It will have allthe money necessary to carry on its commerce. It will becomeprosperous beyond precedent in the history of the civilized

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governments of the world. The brains and the wealth of allcountries will go to North America. That government must bedestroyed, or it will destroy every monarchy on the globe.3

Bismarck wrote in 1876, "The Government and the nation escapedthe plots of the foreign financiers. They understood at once, that theUnited States would escape their grip. The death of Lincoln wasresolved upon."4 Lincoln was assassinated in 1865.

The Worm in the Apple:The National Banking Act of 1863-64

The European financiers had failed to trap Lincoln's governmentwith usurious war loans, but they achieved their ends by other means.While one faction in Congress was busy getting the Greenbacks issuedto fund the war, another faction was preparing a National BankingAct that would deliver a monopoly over the power to create the nation'smoney supply to the Wall Street bankers and their European affiliates.The National Banking Act was promoted as establishing safeguardsfor the new national banking system; but while it was an importantfirst step toward a truly national bank, it was only a compromise withthe bankers, and buried in the fine print, it gave them exactly whatthey wanted. A private communication from a Rothschild investmenthouse in London to an associate banking firm in New York dated June25, 1863, confided:

The few who understand the system will either be so interestedin its profits or so dependent upon its favors that there will beno opposition from that class while, on the other hand, the greatbody of people, mentally incapable of comprehending . . . willbear its burdens without complaint.5

The Act looked good on its face. It established a Comptroller ofthe Currency, whose authority was required before a National BankingAssociation could start business. It laid down regulations coveringminimum capitalization, reserve requirements, bad debts, andreporting. The Comptroller could at any time appoint investigatorsto look into the affairs of any national bank. Every bank director hadto be an American citizen, and three-quarters of the directors of abank had to be residents of the State in which the bank did business.Interest rates were limited by State usury laws; and if no laws were ineffect, then to 7 percent. Banks could not hold real estate for morethan five years, except for bank buildings. National banks were not

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allowed to circulate notes they printed themselves. Instead, they hadto deposit U.S. bonds with the Treasury in a sum equal to at least one-third of their capital. They got government-printed notes in return.

So what was the problem? Although the new national banknoteswere technically issued by the Comptroller of the Currency, this wasjust a formality, like the printing of Federal Reserve Notes by the Bureauof Engraving and Printing today. The currency bore the name of thebank posting the bonds, and it was issued at the bank's request. Ineffect, the National Banking Act authorized the bankers to issue andlend their own paper money. The banks "deposited" bonds with theTreasury, but they still owned the bonds; and they immediately gottheir money back in the form of their own banknotes. Topping it off,the National Banking Act effectively removed the competition to thesebanknotes. It imposed a heavy tax on the notes of the state-charteredbanks, essentially abolishing them.5 It also curtailed competition fromthe Greenbacks, which were limited to specific issues while the bankers'notes could be issued at will. Treasury Secretary Salmon P. Chaseand others complained that the bankers were buying up the Greenbackswith their own banknotes. Zarlenga cites a historian named Dewey,who wrote in 1903:

The banks were accused of absorbing the government notes asfast as they were issued and of putting out their own notes insubstitution, and then at their convenience converting the notesinto bonds on which they earned interest [in gold].6

The government got what it needed at the time - a loan ofsubstantial sums for the war effort and a sound circulating currencyfor an expanding economy - but the banks were the real winners.They not only got to collect interest on money of which they still hadthe use, but they got powerful leverage over the government as itscreditors. The Act that was supposed to regulate the bankers woundup chartering not one but a whole series of private banks, which allhad the power to create the currency of the nation.

The National Banking Act was recommended to Congress by Trea-sury Secretary Chase, ironically the same official who had sponsoredthe Greenback program the Act effectively eliminated. In a popular1887 book called Seven Financial Conspiracies That Have Enslavedthe American People, Sarah Emery wrote that Chase acquiesced onlyafter several days of meetings and threats of financial coercion by bankdelegates.7 He is quoted as saying later:

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Web of Debt

My agency in procuring the passage of the National Bank Actwas the greatest financial mistake of my life. It has built up amonopoly that affects every interest in the country. It should berepealed. But before this can be accomplished, the people willbe arrayed on one side and the banks on the other in a contestsuch as we have never seen in this country.8

Although Lincoln was assassinated in 1865, it would be anotherfifty years before the promise of his debt-free Greenbacks were erasedfrom the minds of a people long suspicious of the usury bankers andtheir gilded paper money. The "Gilded Age" - the period between theCivil War and World War I - was a series of battles over who shouldissue the country's currency and what it should consist of.

Skirmishes in the Currency Wars

Chase appeared on the scene again in 1869, this time as ChiefJustice of the Supreme Court. He wrote the opinion in Hepburn v.Griswold, 75 U.S. 603, holding the Legal Tender Acts to be unconsti-tutional. Chase considered the Greenbacks to be a temporary warmeasure. He wrote that the Constitution prohibits the States frompassing "any . . . law impairing the obligation of contracts," and thatto compel holders of contracts calling for payment in gold and silverto accept payment in "mere promises to pay dollars" was "an uncon-stitutional deprivation of property without due process of law."

In 1871, however, with two new justices on the bench, the Su-preme Court reversed and found the Legal Tender Acts constitutional.In the Legal Tender cases (Knox v. Lee, 79 U.S. 457, 20 L.Ed. 287; andTuilliard v. Greenman, 110 U.S. 421, 4 S.Ct. 122, 28 L.Ed. 204), theCourt declared that Congress has the power "to coin money and regu-late its value" with the objects of self-preservation and the achieve-ment of a more perfect union, and that "no obligation of contract canextend to the defeat of legitimate government authority."

In 1873, an Act the Populists would call the "Crime of '73" elimi-nated the free coinage of silver. Like when King George banned theuse of locally-issued paper scrip a century earlier, the result was "tight"money and hard times. A bank panic followed, which hit the westerndebtor farmers particularly hard.

In 1874, the politically powerful farmers responded by formingthe Greenback Party. Their proposed solution to the crisis was for thegovernment to finance the building of roads and public projects with

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Chapter 9 - Lincoln Loses the Battle

additional debt-free Greenbacks, augmenting the money supply andputting the unemployed to work, returning the country to the sort offull employment and productivity seen in Benjamin Franklin's time.The Greenbacks could also be used to redeem the federal debt. Underthe "Ohio Idea," all government bonds not specifying payment in goldor silver would be repaid in Greenbacks.9 The plan was not adopted,but the Scarecrow had shown he had a brain. The Timid Lion haddemonstrated the courage and the collective will to organize and makea difference.

In 1875, a Resumption Act called for redemption by the Treasuryof all Greenbacks in "specie." The Greenbacks had to be withdrawnand replaced with hard currency, producing further contraction ofthe money supply and deeper depression.

In 1878, the Scarecrow and the Tin Woodman joined forces toform the Greenback-Labor Party. They polled over one million votesand elected 14 Representatives to Congress. They failed to get a newissue of Greenbacks, but they had enough political clout to stop fur-ther withdrawal of existing Greenbacks from circulation. The Green-backs then outstanding ($346,681,016 worth) were made a perma-nent part of the nation's currency.

In 1881, James Garfield became President. He boldly took a standagainst the bankers, charging:

Whosoever controls the volume of money in any country isabsolute master of all industry and commerce . . . And whenyou realize that the entire system is very easily controlled, oneway or another, by a few powerful men at the top, you will nothave to be told how periods of inflation and depression originate.

President Garfield was murdered not long after releasing thisstatement, when he was less than four months into his presidency.Depression deepened, leaving masses of unemployed to face povertyand starvation at a time when there was no social security orunemployment insurance to act as a safety net. Produce was left torot in the fields, because there was no money to pay workers to harvestit or to buy it with when it got to market. The country was facingpoverty amidst plenty, because there was insufficient money incirculation to keep the wheels of trade turning. The country sorelyneeded the sort of liquidity urged by Lincoln, Carey and theGreenbackers; but the bankers insisted that allowing the governmentto print its own money would be dangerously inflationary. That wastheir argument, but critics called it "humbuggery" ....

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Chapter 10THE GREAT HUMBUG:THE GOLD STANDARD AND THESTRAW MAN OF INFLATION

"Hush, my dear," he said. "Don't speak so loud, or you will beoverheard - and I should be ruined. I'm supposed to be a GreatWizard."

"And aren't you?" she asked.

"Not a bit of it, my dear; I'm just a common man."

"You're more than that," said the Scarecrow, in a grieved tone;"you're a humbug."

"Exactly sol" declared the little man, rubbing his hands together asif it pleased him. "I am a humbug."

umbug is a word that isn't used much today, but in the

JL _L Gilded Age it was a popular term for describing frauds, shamsand con artists. Vernon Parrington, a Pulitzer prize-winning historianwriting in the 1920s, used it to describe the arguments of the bankersto silence the farmers who were trying to reform the banker-controlledmoney system in the 1890s. It was the farmers who particularly feltthe pinch of tight money when the bankers withheld their gold.Parrington wrote that the farmers "pitted their homespun experienceagainst the authority of the bankers and the teaching of the schools."In response to their clear-headed arguments, the bankers defendedwith a smokescreen of confusing rhetoric:

Denunciation took the place of exposition, and hysteria ofargument; and in this revel of demagoguery the so-callededucated classes — lawyers and editors and business men — wereperhaps the most shameless purveyors of humbuggery. Stripped

- The Wonderful Wizard ofOz,"The Magic Art of the Great Humbug

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of all hypocrisy the main issue was this: Should the control ofcurrency issues — with the delegated power of inflation and deflation— lie in the hands of private citizens or with the elected representativesof the people? . . . [But] throughout the years when the subjectwas debated in every newspaper and on every stump the realissue was rarely presented for consideration. The bankers didnot dare to present it, for too much was at stake and once it wasclearly understood by a suspicious electorate their case was lost.Hence the strategy of the money group was to obscure the issue, anend they achieved by dwelling on the single point of inflation . . . }

The Quantity Theory of Money

The gold standard and the inflation argument that was used tojustify it were based on the classical "quantity theory of money." Thefoundation of classical monetary theory, it held that inflation is causedby "too much money chasing too few goods." When "demand" (themoney available to buy goods) increases faster than "supply" (goodsand services), prices are forced up. If the government were allowed tosimply issue all the Greenback dollars it needed, the money supplywould increase faster than goods and services, and price inflationwould result. If paper money were tied to gold, a commodity in limitedand fixed supply, the money supply would remain stable and priceinflation would be avoided.

A corollary to that theory was the classical maxim that the gov-ernment should balance its budget at all costs. If it ran short of money,it was supposed to borrow from the bankers rather than print themoney it needed, in order to keep from inflating the money supply.The argument was a "straw man" argument - one easily knockeddown because it contained a logical fallacy - but the fallacy was notimmediately obvious, because the bankers were concealing their hand.The fallacy lay in the assumption that the money the government bor-rowed from the banks already existed and was merely being recycled.If the bankers themselves were creating the money they lent, the argu-ment collapsed in a heap of straw. The money supply would obvi-ously increase just as much from bank-created money as from govern-ment-created money. In either case, it was money pulled out of anempty hat. Money created by the government had the advantagethat it would not plunge the taxpayers into debt; and it provided apermanent money supply, one not dependent on higher and higherlevels of borrowing to stay afloat.

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The quantity theory of money contained another logical fallacy,which was pointed out later by British economist John MaynardKeynes. Adding money ("demand") to the economy would drive upprices only if the "supply" side of the equation remained fixed. If newGreenbacks were used to create new goods and services, supply wouldincrease along with demand, and prices would remain stable.2 Whena shoe salesman with many unsold shoes on his shelves suddenly gotmore customers, he did not raise his prices. He sold more shoes. If heran out of shoes, he ordered more from the factory, which producedmore. If he were to raise his prices, his customers would go to theshop down the street, where shoes were still being sold at the lowerprice. Adding more money to the economy would inflate prices onlywhen the producers ran out of the labor and materials needed to makemore goods. Before that, supply and demand would increase together,leaving prices as they were before.

That theoretical revision helps explain such paradoxical data asthe "economic mystery" of China. The Chinese have managed tokeep the prices of their products low for thousands of years, althoughtheir money supply has continually been flooded with the world'sgold and silver, and now with the world's dollars, as those currencieshave poured in to pay for China's cheap products. The Keynesianexplanation is that prices have remained stable because the moneyhas gone into producing more goods, increasing supply along withdemand. Keith Bradsher, writing in The New York Times in Febru-ary 2006, observed:

A longstanding mystery for economic historians lies in how somuch silver and gold flowed to China for centuries for thepurchase of Chinese goods, yet caused little inflation in China.Many of China's manufactured goods remained much cheaperthan other countries' manufactured goods until the early 1800's,despite the rapidly growing supply of silver sloshing around theChinese economy. One theory is that Chinese output was expandingas fast as the precious metals supply . . . The same phenomenonhas appeared today, as dollars inundating China have resultedin practically no increase in prices for most goods and services(although real estate prices have jumped in most cities).3

By 2007, Chinese economists were complaining that consumerprices were rising, but this was primarily due to the rising internationalcosts of fuel and food, and to the fact that the yuan was tightly peggedto a U.S. dollar that was rapidly becoming devalued in international

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markets. Price inflation from changes in exchange rates, as we'll seelater, is a different thing from inflation due to an increase in the supplyof "money" over "goods and services."

The Remarkable Island of Guernsey

While U.S. bankers were insisting that the government must bor-row rather than print the money it needed, the residents of a smallisland state off the coast of England were quietly conducting a 200-year experiment that would show the bankers' inflation argument tobe a humbug. Guernsey is located among the British Channel Islands,about 75 miles south of Great Britain. In 1994, Dr. Bob Blain, Profes-sor of Sociology at Southern Illinois University, wrote of this remark-able island:

In 1816 its sea walls were crumbling, its roads were muddyand only 4 1/2 feet wide. Guernsey's debt was 19,000 pounds.The island's annual income was 3,000 pounds of which 2,400had to be used to pay interest on its debt. Not surprisingly,people were leaving Guernsey and there was little employment.

Then the government created and loaned new, interest-freestate notes worth 6,000 pounds. Some 4,000 pounds were usedto start the repairs of the sea walls. In 1820, another 4,500pounds was issued, again interest-free. In 1821, another 10,000;1824, 5,000; 1826, 20,000. By 1837, 50,000 pounds had beenissued interest free for the primary use of projects like sea walls,roads, the marketplace, churches, and colleges. This sum morethan doubled the island's money supply during this thirteen yearperiod, but there was no inflation. In the year 1914, as the Britishrestricted the expansion of their money supply due to WorldWar I, the people of Guernsey commenced to issue another142,000 pounds over the next four years and never looked back.By 1958, over 542,000 pounds had been issued, all withoutinflation.5

Guernsey has an income tax, but the tax is relatively low (a "flat"20 percent), and it is simple and loophole-free. It has no inheritancetax, no capital gains tax, and no federal debt. Commercial banks ser-vice private lenders, but the government itself never goes into debt.When it wants to create some public work or service, it just issues themoney it needs to pay for the work. The Guernsey government hasbeen issuing its own money for nearly two centuries. During thattime, the money supply has mushroomed to about 25 times its original

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size; yet the economy has not been troubled by price inflation, and ithas remained prosperous and stable.6

Many other countries have also successfully issued their ownmoney, but Guernsey is one of the few to have stayed under the radarlong enough to escape the covert attacks of an international bankingcartel bent on monopolizing the money-making market. As we'll seelater, governments that have dared to create their own money havegenerally wound up dealing with a presidential assassination, a coup,a boycott, a war, or a concerted assault on the national currency byinternational speculators. The American colonists operated success-fully on their own sovereign money until British moneylenders leanedon Parliament to halt the practice, prompting the American Revolu-tion. England had a thriving economy that operated on the sovereignmoney of the king until Oliver Cromwell let the moneylenders insidethe gates. After 1700, the right to create money was transferred to theprivate Bank of England, based on a fraudulent "gold standard" thatallowed it to duplicate the gold in its vaults many times over in theform of paper banknotes. Today governments are in the position ofthe disenfranchised king, having to borrow money created by the banksrather than issuing it themselves.

The Gold Humbug

In 1863, Eleazar Lord, a New York banker, called the gold standarditself a humbug. He wrote:

The so-called specie basis [or gold standard], whenever there isa foreign demand for coin, proves to be a mere fiction, a practicalhumbug; and whenever, by an excess of imports, this pretendedbasis is exported to pay foreign debts, the bank-notes arewithdrawn from circulation or become worthless, the currencyfor the time is annihilated, prices fall, business is suspended,debts remain unpaid, panic and distress ensue, men in activebusiness fail, bankruptcy, ruin, and disgrace reign.7

The requirement that paper banknotes be backed by a certainweight of gold bullion, Lord said, was a fiction. Banks did not havenearly enough gold to "redeem" all the paper money that was sup-posed to be based on it, and there was no real reason the nation'spaper money had to be linked to gold at all. The gold standard justput America at the mercy of the foreign financiers who controlled thegold. When national imports exceeded exports, gold bullion left thecountry to pay the bill; and when gold stores shrank, the supply of

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paper money "based" on it shrank as well.

The real issue, as Vernon Parrington pointed out, was not whatmoney consisted of but who created it. Whether the medium of ex-change was gold or paper or numbers in a ledger, when it was lentinto existence by private lenders and was owed back to them withinterest, more money would always be owed back than was createdin the first place, spiraling the economy into perpetual debt. A dollarborrowed at 6 percent interest, compounded annually, grows in 100years to be a debt of $13,781.8 That is true whether the money takesthe form of gold or paper or accounting entries. The banks lend thedollar into existence but not the additional $13,780 needed to pay theloan off, forcing the public to go further and further into debt in searchof the ephemeral interest due on their money-built-on-debt. Merchantscontinually have to raise their prices to try to cover this interest tab,producing perpetual price inflation. Like the Tin Woodman whoseaxe was enchanted by the Witch to chop off parts of his own body,the more people work, the less they seem to have left for themselves.They cannot keep up because their money keeps shrinking, as sellerskeep raising their prices in a futile attempt to pay off loans that arecollectively impossible to repay. (See Chart opposite.)

Challenging Corporate Feudalism

If the Scarecrow in search of a brain represented the unschooledfarmers matching wits with the bankers, the Tin Woodman who hadchopped out his own heart reflected the plight of the working manexploited by the corporation, which was increasingly replacing thesmall family business competing in a "free market." In 1886,corporations were given the rights and privileges of "individuals"although they lacked the morality and the conscience of live humanbeings. Their sole motive was profit, the sort of single-minded devotionto self-interest that in a live human being would be consideredpathological. Corporations are feudalistic organizations designed inthe structure of a pyramid, with an elite group at the top manipulatingmasses of workers below. Workers are kept marching in lockstep,passing orders down from above, out of fear of losing their jobs, theirhomes and their benefits if they get out of line. At the top of thepyramid is a small group of controllers who alone know what is reallygoing on. Critics have noted that the pyramid with an overseeing eyeat the top is also the symbol on the Federal Reserve Note, the privately-

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Web of Debt

INFLATION: 88% Decline in PurchasingPower of the Dollar(a 1950 dollar now worth 11.5 cents)

from: www.mwhodges.home.att.net/

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issued currency that became the national monetary unit in 1913.

The popular grassroots movements that produced the Greenbackand Populist Parties in the 1890s represented the interests of the com-mon man over these corporate and financial oppressors. "Populism"today tends to be associated with the political left, but the word comesfrom the Latin word simply for the "people." In the nineteenth cen-tury, it stood for the "government of the people, by the people, for thepeople" proclaimed by Abraham Lincoln. According to Wikipedia(an online encyclopedia written collaboratively by volunteers):

Populism... on the whole does not have a strong political identityas either a left-wing or right-wing movement. Populism hastaken left-wing, right-wing, and even centrist forms. In recentyears, conservative United States politicians have begun adoptingpopulist rhetoric; for example, promising to "get big governmentoff your backs."

Although the oppressor today is seen to be big government, whatthe nineteenth century Populists were trying to get off their backs wasa darker, more malevolent force. They still believed that the principles

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Chapter 10 - The Great Humbug

set forth in the Constitution could be achieved through a democraticgovernment of the people. They saw their antagonist rather as theprivate money power and the corporations it had spawned, whichwere threatening to take over the government unless the people inter-vened. Abraham Lincoln is quoted as saying:

I see in the near future a crisis approaching that unnerves meand causes me to tremble for the safety of my country.Corporations have been enthroned, an era of corruption in highplaces will follow, and the money power of the country willendeavor to prolong its reign by working upon the prejudices ofthe people until the wealth is aggregated in the hands of a fewand the Republic is destroyed.9

Lincoln may not actually have said this. As with many famousquotations, its authorship is disputed.10 But whoever said it, the in-sight was prophetic. In a January 2007 article called "Who RulesAmerica?", Professor James Petras wrote, "Today it is said 2% of thehouseholds own 80% of the world's assets. Within this small elite, a frac-tion embedded in financial capital owns and controls the bulk of theworld's assets and organizes and facilitates further concentration ofconglomerates." Professor Petras observed:

Within the financial ruling class, . . . political leaders come fromthe public and private equity banks, namely Wall Street —especially Goldman Sachs, Blackstone, the Carlyle Group andothers. They organize and fund both major parties and theirelectoral campaigns. They pressure, negotiate and draw up themost comprehensive and favorable legislation on global strategies(liberalization and deregulation) and sectoral policies .... Theypressure the government to "bailout" bankrupt and failedspeculative firms and to balance the budget by lowering socialexpenditures instead of raising taxes on speculative "windfall"profits. . . . [T]hese private equity banks are involved in everysector of the economy, in every region of the world economyand increasingly speculate in the conglomerates which areacquired. Much of the investment funds now in the hands ofUS investment banks, hedge funds and other sectors of thefinancial ruling class originated in profits extracted from workersin the manufacturing and service sector.11

It seems that the Tin Man has indeed been stripped of his heartand soul by the Witch of the East — the Wall Street bankers — just asLincoln, the Greenbackers and the Populists foresaw ....

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Section II

THE BANKERS CAPTURE THEMONEY MACHINE

The Wicked Witch of the East held all the Munchkins in bondage formany years, making them slave for her night and day.

- The Wonderful Wizard ofOz,"The Council with the Munchkins"

Chapter 11NO PLACE LIKE HOME:FIGHTING FOR THE FAMILY FARM

"No matter how dreary and gray our homes are, we people of fleshand blood would rather live there than in any other country, be it everso beautiful. There is no place like home."

- Dorothy to the Scarecrow,The Wonderful Wizard of Oz

People today might wonder why Dorothy, who could havestayed and played in the technicolor wonderland of Oz, wasso eager to get home to her dreary Kansas farm. But readers couldhave related to that sentiment in the 1890s, when keeping the familyhomestead was a key political issue. Home foreclosures and evictionswere occurring in record numbers. A document called "The BankersManifesto of 1892" suggested that it was all part of a deliberate planby the bankers to disenfranchise the farmers and laborers of theirhomes and property. This is another document with obscure origins,but its introduction to Congress is attributed to Representative CharlesLindbergh Sr., the father of the famous aviator, who served in Con-gress between 1903 and 1913. The Manifesto read in part:

We must proceed with caution and guard every move made,for the lower order of people are already showing signs of restlesscommotion. . . . The Farmers Alliance and Knights of Labororganizations in the United States should be carefully watchedby our trusted men, and we must take immediate steps to controlthese organizations in our interest or disrupt them. . . . Capital[the bankers and their money] must protect itself in every possiblemanner through combination [monopoly] and legislation. Thecourts must be called to our aid, debts must be collected, bonds

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and mortgages foreclosed as rapidly as possible. When throughthe process of the law, the common people have lost their homes, theywill be more tractable and easily governed through the influence ofthe strong arm of the government applied to a central power ofimperial wealth under the control of the leading financiers. Peoplewithout homes will not quarrel with their leaders.1

The Farmers Alliance and Knights of Labor were the Scarecrowand Tin Woodman of Baum's tale. They were a serious force to bereckoned with. They were militant, and they were mad. To splitthese powerful opponents, the Bankers Manifesto recommended atactic still used today:

[While] our principal men . . . are engaged in forming animperialism of the world . . . , the people must be kept in a stateof political antagonism. ... By thus dividing voters, we can getthem to expend their energies in fighting over questions of noimportance to us ... . Thus, by discrete action, we can secure allthat has been so generously planned and successfullyaccomplished.

The voters, then as now, were kept pacified with the right to votefor one of two or three candidates, all manipulated by the same pup-peteers. As Indian author Arundhati Roy would complain of the elec-tion process a century later:

It's not a real choice, it's an apparent choice, like choosing abrand of detergent. Whether you buy Ivory Snow or Tide, they'reboth owned by Proctor and Gamble. . . . Those in positions ofreal power, the bankers, the CEOs, are not vulnerable to thevote, and in any case they fund both sides.2

It was this sort of disillusionment with the political process thatprompted Howard Zinn, Professor Emeritus in Boston University'shistory department, to state in 2001:

For progressive movements, the future does not lie with electoralpolitics. It lies in street warfare - protest movements anddemonstrations, civil disobedience, strikes and boycotts - usingall of the power consumers and workers have in direct actionagainst the government and corporations.3

The tradition of the street protest dates back to 1894, when Coxey'sArmy marched from Ohio to Washington D.C. to petition Congress torevive the Greenback system ....

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Petitions in Boots

In striking contrast to the rag-tag army he led, "General" Jacob S.Coxey was a wealthy Populist who owned a sand quarry, bred horses,and wore hand-tailored suits. He was in it for the cause, one to whichhe was so committed that he named his son "Legal Tender." LikeFrank Baum, Coxey was a follower of the new theosophical move-ment that was all the rage in the 1890s. He said his monetary solutionhad come to him fully formed in a dream.4 He didn't just dream it buttook it right to the Capitol steps, in the sort of can-do spirit that wouldcome to characterize the Populist movement. He called his protestmarch a "petition in boots."

When Coxey's Army, some 500 strong, entered Washington D.C.and marched down Pennsylvania Avenue, the perceived threat wasso great that 1,500 U.S. soldiers were stationed to resist them.5 Coxeyattempted to deliver his speech on the Capitol steps but was preventedby the police. He wound up spending 20 days in jail for trespassingon the grass and for displaying a prohibited "banner" (actually a 3inch by 2 inch lapel pin).6 His prepared speech was later entered intothe Congressional record by his supporters. It was quite eloquent andmoving, revealing the extremity and the despair of a people who hadbecome progressively poorer as the bankers had become richer. Coxeysaid:

Up these steps the lobbyists of trusts and corporations have passedunchallenged on their way to committee rooms, access to which we,the representatives of the toiling wealth-producers, have been denied.We stand here to-day in behalf of millions of toilers whosepetitions have been buried in committee rooms, whose prayershave been unresponded to, and whose opportunities for honest,remunerative, productive labor have been taken from them byunjust legislation, which protects idlers, speculators, andgamblers: we come to remind the Congress here assembled ofthe declaration of a United States Senator, "that for a quarter ofa century the rich have been growing richer, the poor poorer,and that by the close of the present century the middle class willhave disappeared as the struggle for existence becomes fierce andrelentless."

. . . We have come here through toil and weary marches,through storms and tempests, over mountains, and amid the

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trials of poverty and distress, to lay our grievances at the doorsof our National Legislature . . . .We are here to petition forlegislation which will furnish employment for every man ableand willing to work; for legislation which will bring universalprosperity and emancipate our beloved country from financialbondage to the descendants of King George.

... We are engaged in a bitter and cruel war with the enemiesof all mankind - a war with hunger, wretchedness, and despair,and we ask Congress to heed our petitions and issue for thenation's good a sufficient volume of the same kind of moneywhich carried the country through one awful war and savedthe life of the nation.7

Coxey proposed two bills, one primarily to help farmers, the otherto help urban laborers. Under his "Good Roads Bill," $500 millionwould be issued in legal tender notes or Greenbacks to construct theroads particularly needed in rural America. For city dwellers, Coxeyproposed a "Noninterest-Bearing Bonds Bill." It would authorize stateand local governments to issue noninterest-bearing bonds that wouldbe used to borrow legal tender notes from the federal treasury. Themonies raised by these transactions would be used for public projectssuch as building libraries, schools, utility plants, and marketplaces.8

Coxey was thus proposing something quite new and revolution-ary: the government would determine the projects it wanted to carryout, then issue the money to pay for them. The country did not needto be limited by the money it already had, money based on gold thebankers controlled. "Money" was simply a receipt for labor and ma-terials, which the government could and should issue itself. If thelabor and materials were available and people wanted the work done,they could all get together and trade, using paper receipts of theirown design. It was a manifestation of the theosophical tenet that youcould achieve your dreams simply by "realizing" them - by makingthem real. You could realize the abundance you already had, just bybringing its potential into manifestation.

When Coxey's Army failed to move Congress, other "industrialarmies" were inspired to take up the cause. There were over forty inall. Some 1,200 protesters managed to overcome the resistance of therailroad companies, federal marshals, the U.S. Army, and judicial in-junctions to arrive in Washington in 1894. One group, called "Hogan'sArmy," began its march in Montana — too far to walk to the Capitol,so the protesters commandeered a train. When the U.S. Marshall and

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his men attempted to stop them, a gun battle resulted in several inju-ries and one death. The U.S. Army finally seized the train. "Hogan'sHeroes" were arrested, and Hogan spent six months in jail.9

Over the next century, progressively larger street protests werebuilt on the precedent Coxey's Army had established. In 1913, womansuffragists sponsored a national march on Washington that had fed-eral support. In 1932, approximately 20,000 starving unemployedWorld War I veterans and their families marched for the "Bonus Bill"drafted by Congressman Wright Patman. The bill sought to give vet-erans the present value of their bonuses, which had been issued in1924 but were not to be paid until 1945. When their demands wereturned down by President Hoover, the "Bonus Army" camped out inshantytowns called "Hoovervilles" across the Potomac. The campsdid not disband until Hoover sent in troops, led by his brightest andbest - Douglas MacArthur, Dwight Eisenhower, and George Patton.The veterans were routed and their camps set ablaze, killing threeand injuring about a thousand.10 On April 25, 2004, in the largest-ever protest march recorded up to that date, more than one millionpeople filled the Capitol petitioning for women's rights. The day be-fore that, thousands marched to protest World Bank/IMF policies.11

Popularizing the Money Question

When the Greenback Party failed to achieve monetary reform,many of its members joined the Populist Party. The Populists felt thatthey rather than the older political parties represented the trueAmerican principles of the Founding Fathers, and one fundamentalprinciple they felt had been lost was that creating the national currencywas the sole prerogative of the government. The Populists also favoredretrieving for the Common Wealth certain public assets that had beenusurped by private corporate cartels, including the banks, railroads,telephone, and telegraph; and the public lands that had been givenaway to private railroad and other corporate monopolies.

The Populist movement of the 1890s represented the last seriouschallenge to the bankers' monopoly over the right to create the nation'smoney. In 1895, popular interest in the money question was arousedby a book called Coin's Financial School, which quickly sold a millioncopies. Its author, Chicago journalist William Hope Harvey, expressedthe issues in a way that common people could understand. Hemaintained that the attempt to restrict the coinage of silver was aconspiracy designed to enrich the London-controlled Eastern financiers

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Chapter 11 - No Place Like Home

at the expense of farmers and debtors. He called England "a powerthat can dictate the money of the world, and thereby create worldmisery." The "Crime of '73" - the Act limiting the free coinage ofsilver - took away the silver money of the people and replaced it withthe gold of the British bankers. Harvey observed that the United Stateswas then paying England 200 million dollars in gold annually just ininterest on its bonds, and that the devaluation of silver as against goldhad caused Americans to lose the equivalent of 400 million dollars inproperty to meet this interest burden.12

Coin's Financial School set the stage for William Jennings Bryan's"Cross of Gold" speech, which met with a receptive audience; andHarvey became an important economic adviser to Bryan in his bid forthe Presidency. In 1896, Populist supporters and Silverites dominatedthe Democratic convention. All they needed, said one reporter, was"a Moses." Bryan appeared to fill the bill; but William McKinley, hisRepublican opponent, had the support of big business, including a$250,000 contribution from Rockefeller's Standard Oil, then anenormous sum. The election was close, but McKinley won; and hewon again in 1900.

Although McKinley had the support of big money, he was also aprotectionist who favored high tariffs to keep foreign marauders out.He accepted the pro-British Teddy Roosevelt as his Vice President overthe vigorous objection of Marcus Hanna, the power behind McKinley'sPresidency and the man identified by later commentators as the"Wizard of the Gold Ounce (Oz)." Hanna told McKinley that hischief duty in office was just to stay alive, to save the country from"that madman" Roosevelt. But in 1901, McKinley failed in thatendeavor. He was the third President to be assassinated since theCivil War. Although no conspiracy was proved, suspiciouscommentators noted that the elimination of the protectionist McKinleywas highly convenient for pro-British interests. The door had beenopened to an Anglo-American alliance backed by powerful financierson both sides of the Atlantic, something that would not have happenedin the nineteenth century, when England was still regarded by loyalAmericans as the enemy.13

According to a historical treatise by Murray Rothbard, politics afterMcKinley became a struggle between two competing banking giants,the Morgans and the Rockefellers. The parties have sometimes changedhands, but the puppeteers pulling the strings have always been one ofthese two big-money players.14 No popular third party candidate has

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Web of Debt

had a real chance of winning because the bankers, who have theexclusive power to create the national money supply, hold all the trumpcards.

Teddy Roosevelt called himself a "trustbuster;" but while the anti-trust laws were on the books, little harm came to the powerful corpo-rate monopolies called "trusts" during his administration. The trustsand cartels remained the puppeteers with real power, pulling thestrings of puppet politicians who were basically bribed to stand backand do nothing, while the powerful conglomerates the antitrust lawswere designed to regulate manipulated the laws. Roosevelt complainedin 1906:

Behind the ostensible government sits enthroned an invisiblegovernment owing no allegiance and acknowledging noresponsibility to the people. To destroy this invisible government,to befoul the unholy alliance between corrupt business andcorrupt politics is the first task of the statesmanship of the day.

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Chapter 12TALKING HEADS ANDINVISIBLE HANDS:THE SECRET GOVERNMENT

"But I don't understand," said Dorothy, in bewilderment. "Howwas it that you appeared to me as a great Head?"

"That was one of my tricks," answered Oz. . . . He pointed to acorner in which lay the great Head, made out of many thicknesses ofpaper, and with a carefully painted face.

"This I hung from the ceiling by a wire," said Oz. "I stood behindthe screen and pulled a thread, to make the eyes move and the mouthopen."

- The Wonderful Wizard ofOz,"The Discovery ofOz the Terrible"

The idea of an "invisible hand" controlling the market wasfirst advanced by Scottish economist Adam Smith in TheWealth of Nations in 1776. But Smith's invisible hand was a benignone, a sort of mystical force that would make everything come outright if the market were just left alone. The invisible hand alluded toby later commentators was of a more insidious sort, a hand that wrotethe pages of history with its own secret agenda. President WoodrowWilson, who signed the Federal Reserve Act into law in 1913, said:

We have come to be one of the worst ruled, one of the mostcompletely controlled governments in the civilized world — nolonger a government of free opinion, no longer a government by... a vote of the majority, but a government by the opinion andduress of a small group of dominant men.

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Who were these dominant men? Wilson only hinted, saying:

Some of the biggest men in the United States, in the field ofcommerce and manufacture, are afraid of something. They knowthat there is a power somewhere so organized, so subtle, sowatchful, so interlocked, so complete, so pervasive, that theyhad better not speak above their breath when they speak incondemnation of it.1

Many other leaders hinted that the government was controlled byinvisible puppeteers. President Franklin D. Roosevelt, TeddyRoosevelt's distant cousin, acknowledged in 1933:

The real truth of the matter is, as you and I know, that a financialelement in the large centers has owned the government sincethe days of Andrew Jackson. . . . The country is going through arepetition of Jackson's fight with the Bank of the United States -only on a far bigger and broader basis.

Felix Frankfurter, Justice of the Supreme Court, said in 1952:

The real rulers in Washington are invisible and exercise powerfrom behind the scenes.

Congressman Wright Patman, Chairman of the House Bankingand Currency Committee, said in a speech on the House floor in 1967:

In the U.S. today, we have in effect two governments. We havethe duly constituted government, then we have an independent,uncontrolled and uncoordinated government in the FederalReserve, operating the money powers which are reserved tocongress by the Constitution.

Two decades later, Senator Daniel Inouye would state on the Con-gressional Record at the conclusion of the Iran Contra hearings:

There exists a shadowy Government with its own Air Force, itsown Navy, its own fundraising mechanism, and the ability topursue its own ideas of national interest, free from all checksand balances, and free from the law itself.2

In 1927, Mayor John Hylan of New York compared the invisiblegovernment to a "giant octopus," recalling the "hydra-headed mon-ster" battled by Andrew Jackson. In a speech in the New York Times,Hylan said:

The warning of Theodore Roosevelt has much timelinesstoday, for the real menace of our republic is this invisiblegovernment which like a giant octopus sprawls its slimy length

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over City, State, and nation ... It seizes in its long and powerfultentacles our executive officers, our legislative bodies, our schools,our courts, our newspapers, and every agency created for thepublic protection.

... [A]t the head of this octopus are the Rockefeller-StandardOil interest and a small group of powerful banking housesgenerally referred to as the international bankers. The little coterieof powerful international bankers virtually run the United Statesgovernment for their own selfish purposes.

They practically control both parties, write politicalplatforms, make catspaws of party leaders, use the leading menof private organizations, and resort to every device to place innomination for high public office only such candidates as willbe amenable to the dictates of corrupt big business. . . .

These international bankers and Rockefeller-Standard Oilinterests control the majority of the newspapers and magazinesin this country. They use the columns of these papers to clubinto submission or drive out of office public officials who refuseto do the bidding of the powerful corrupt cliques which composethe invisible government.3

In 1934, these international bankers and businessmen were labeledthe "Robber Barons" by Matthew Josephson in a popular book of thesame name.4 The Robber Barons were an unscrupulous lot, who "livedfor market conquest, and plotted takeovers like military strategy." JohnD. Rockefeller's father was called a snake-oil salesman, flimflam man,bigamist, and marginal criminal - never convicted but often accused,of crimes ranging from horse theft to rape. He once boasted, "I cheatmy boys every chance I get, I want to make 'em sharp." Once theRobber Barons had established a monopoly, they would raise prices,drop the quality of service, and engage in unfair trading practices todrive other firms out of business. The abuses of these monopolies be-came such a national scandal that in 1890, the Sherman Antitrust Actpassed both houses of Congress with only one dissenting vote. Theproblem was enforcing it. In 1888, the entire Commonwealth of Mas-sachusetts had receipts of only $7 million to oversee a Boston railroadmonopoly with gross receipts of $40 million.5

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Can You Trust a Trust?

"Trusts" are concentrations of wealth in the hands of a few. Thename came from the private banks entrusted with the money ofdepositors. Paper bank notes were called "fiduciary" money (afterthe Latin word fide, meaning to "trust"), because the bankers had tobe "trusted" to keep a sum of gold on hand to redeem their paperreceipts on demand.6 These fiduciary banks played a key role informing the giant trusts of the Gilded Age. The trusts had their ownprivate banks, which were authorized to create and lend money atwill. Like in the board game "Monopoly," they used this paper moneyto buy up competitors and monopolize the game.

Monopoly growth and abuse were at their height in the GildedAge, the country's greatest period of laissez faire} The trusts were sopowerful that the trend toward monopolizing industry actually wors-ened after the Sherman Act was passed. Before 1898, there were anaverage of 46 major industrial mergers a year. After 1898, the num-ber soared to 531 a year. By 1904, the top 4 percent of Americanbusinesses produced 57 percent of America's total industrial produc-tion, with a single firm dominating at least 60 percent of productionin 50 different industries. Ironically, the trusts became the strongestadvocates of federal regulation, since their monopoly power dependedon the exclusive rights granted them by the government. By plantingtheir own agents in the federal commissions, they used governmentregulation to gain greater control over industry, protect themselvesfrom competition, and maintain high prices.

The Banks and the Rise of Wall Street

There were many Robber Barons, but J. Pierpont Morgan, AndrewCarnegie, and John D. Rockefeller led the pack. Morgan dominatedfinance, Carnegie dominated steel, and Rockefeller monopolized oil.Carnegie built his business himself, and he loved competition; but Mor-gan was a different type of capitalist. He didn't build, he bought. Hetook over other people's businesses, and he hated competition. In1901, Morgan formed the first billion dollar corporation, U.S. Steel,out of mills he purchased from Carnegie.

1 French for "let it be" - a policy of deliberate non-intervention in themarket.

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Rockefeller, too, dealt with competitors by buying them out. Hiscompany, Standard Oil, became the greatest of all monopolies andthe first major multinational corporation. Before World War I, thefinancial and business structure of the United States was dominatedby Morgan's finance and transportation companies and Rockefeller'sStandard Oil; and these conglomerates had close alliances with eachother. Through interlocking directorships, they were said to domi-nate almost the entire economic fabric of the United States.7

Other industrialists, seeing the phenomenal success of the Morganand Rockefeller trusts, dreamt of buying out their competition andforming huge monopolies in the same way. But with the exception ofCarnegie, no other capitalists had the money for these predatory prac-tices. Aspiring empire-builders were therefore drawn to Morgan andthe other Wall Street bankers in search of funding. Corporations be-gan drifting to New York to be near the big investment houses. By1895, New York had become the headquarters for America's majorcorporations and the home of half its millionaires. Morgan's bank at23 Wall Street, known as the "House of Morgan," was for decades themost important address in American finance. In 1920, a bomb ex-ploded in front of the bank, killing 40 and injuring 400. Later, thenexus of American finance moved to the World Trade Center, thechosen target for another tragic attack in 2001.

Early in the twentieth century, Morgan controlled a Wall Streetsyndicate that financial writer John Moody called "the greatestfinancial power in the history of the world." Morgan dominated ahundred corporations with more than $22 billion in assets. In 1913,in a book called Other People's Money and How the Bankers Use It,Supreme Court Justice Louis Brandeis wrote that the greatest threatto the American economy was the "money trust." According to TheWall Street Tournal, the "money trust" was just another name for J.Pierpont Morgan, who had founded the world's most powerful bank.Like the Rothschilds in England, Morgan had extraordinary politicalinfluence in the United States. Morgan men routinely represented theU.S. government at international monetary meetings, something theycontinue to do today. Alan Greenspan, longstanding Chairman ofthe Federal Reserve, was a corporate director for J. P. Morgan beforePresident Ronald Reagan appointed him to that post.8

Those fortunate corporations favored with funding from Morganand the other Wall Street bankers were able to monopolize theirindustries. But where did the Wall Street banks get the money to

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underwrite all these mergers and acquisitions? The answer wasrevealed by Congressman Wright Patman and other close observers:the Robber Barons were pulling money out of an empty hat. Theirprivately owned banks held the ultimate credit card, a bottomlesssource of accounting-entry money that could be "lent" to their affiliatedcorporate mistresses. The funds could then be used to buy outcompetitors, corner the market in scarce raw materials, make politicaldonations, lobby Congress, and control public opinion.

Who Pulled the Strings of the Robber Barons?

Rockefeller and Morgan were rivals who competed for power onthe political scene, but they both had the support of powerful Britishfinanciers. John D. Rockefeller Sr. first made his fortune with somedubious railroad rebate deals during the Civil War. By 1895, he hadacquired 95 percent of America's oil refining business. Chase Bank(named after Salmon P. Chase in honor of his role in passing the Na-tional Banking Act) was bought by Rockefeller with financing tracedto the Rothschilds. The funds came from a New York banking firmcalled Kuhn, Loeb, & Co., which was then under the control of aGerman immigrant named Jacob Schiff. Schiff had bought into thepartnership with financial backing from the Rothschilds. He laterbought out Kuhn and married the eldest daughter of Loeb. The Man-hattan Company (the banking firm established by Hamilton and Burrat the turn of the nineteenth century) also came under the control ofthe Rothschilds through the banking interests of Kuhn, Loeb and theWarburgs, another Rothschild-related Frankfurt banking dynasty. In1955, Rockefeller's Chase Bank merged with the Manhattan Com-pany to become the Chase Manhattan Bank.9

The Morgan family banking interest could be traced back to Englandin an even more direct way. In the 1850s, Junius Morgan became apartner in what would become Peabody, Morgan, and Company, aLondon investment business specializing in transactions betweenBritain and the United States. During the Civil War, the partnershipbecame the chief fiscal agent for the Union. John Pierpont Morgan,Junius' son, later became head of the firm's New York branch, whichwas named J. P. Morgan & Co. in 1895. J. P. Morgan Jr., John Pierpont'sson, then became a partner in the branch in London, where he movedin 1898 to learn the central banking system as dominated by the Bankof England.

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Web of Debt

Although the Rothschilds were technically rivals of the Peabody/Morgan firm, rumor had it that they had formed a secret alliance.Nathan Rothschild was not well liked, in part because of religiousprejudice. Morgan biographer George Wheeler wrote in 1973, "Partof the reality of the day was an ugly resurgence of anti-Semitism. . . .Someone was needed as a cover." August Belmont (born Schoenberg)had played that role for Morgan during the Civil War; but when theBelmont/Rothschild connection became common knowledge, the ployno longer worked. Wheeler wrote, "Who better than J. Pierpont Mor-gan, a solid, Protestant exemplar of capitalism able to trace his familyback to pre-Revolutionary times?" That could explain why, in theperiodic financial crises of the Gilded Age, Morgan's bank always cameout on top. In the bank panics of 1873, 1884, 1893, and 1907, whileother banks were going under, Morgan's bank always managed tocome up with the funds to survive and thrive.10

The Shadow Government

In 1879, Rockefeller turned his company Standard Oil into thenew vehicle called a "trust" in order to coordinate all of its produc-tion, refining, transportation, and distribution activities. The Rockefellertrust consisted of a network of companies that were wholly or par-tially owned by Rockefeller and that invested in each other. Thescheme worked until 1882, when Standard Oil was driven out of Ohiodue to antitrust investigations. In 1883, Rockefeller's trust moved toNew York, where it proceeded to systematically devour independentoil producers and refiners across the country and the world. It wasaided in these rapacious practices by illegal railroad rebates from Mor-gan, who had bought up the railroads with funding from theRothschild bank. Independent oil refiners, being unable to compete,were forced to sell out at a huge loss or face financial ruin.

By 1890, Rockefeller owned all of the independent oil refiners inthe country and had a monopoly on worldwide oil sales. In 1911, theU.S. Supreme Court ruled that the Standard Oil cartel was a "danger-ous conspiracy" that must be broken up "for the safety of the Repub-lic." ("Conspiracy" is a legal term meaning an agreement betweentwo or more persons to commit a crime or accomplish a legal purposethrough illegal action.) In 1914, Standard Oil was referred to in theCongressional Record as the "shadow government."11 Following theCourt's antitrust order, the Standard Oil monolith was split into 38

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Chapter 12 - Talking Heads and Invisible Hands

new companies, including Exxon, Mobil, Amoco, Chevron, and Arco;but Rockefeller secretly continued to control them by owning a votingmajority of their stock.

The invention of the automobile and the gasoline engine gave theRockefeller/Morgan syndicate a virtual stranglehold on the energybusiness. Rather than conserving oil and finding alternatives to theinefficient gasoline engine, they encouraged waste and consumptionand ruthlessly suppressed competition.12 International strategist HenryKissinger would say much later that whoever controlled oil controlledthe world. That was true so long as the world was powered by oil,and the oil cartel evidently intended to keep it that way. Early in thetwentieth century, energy genius Nikola Tesla was reportedly on theverge of developing "free energy" that would be independent of bothfossil fuels and wires.13 But Tesla had the ill fortune of being fundedby J. P. Morgan. When Morgan learned that there would be no wayto charge for the new energy, he cut off Tesla's funding and took stepsto insure the latter's financial ruin. Tesla wrote in a plaintive letter toMorgan, "I came to you with the greatest invention of all times. Iknew you would refuse .... What chance have I to land the biggestWall Street monster with the soul's spider thread?"14

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Chapter 13WITCHES' COVEN:THE JEKYLL ISLAND AFFAIR ANDTHE FEDERAL RESERVEACT OF 1913

"One of my greatest fears was the Witches, for while I had nomagical powers at all I soon found out that the Witches were really ableto do wonderful things."

- The Wonderful Wizard ofOz,"The Discovery ofOz the Terrible"

If the Wall Street bankers were the Wicked Witches of theGilded Age, the coven where they conjured up their grandest ofschemes was on Jekyll Island, a property off the coast of Georgia ownedby J. P. Morgan. The coven was hosted in 1910 by Senator NelsonAldrich of Rhode Island, a business associate of Morgan and the father-in-law of John D. Rockefeller Jr. The Republican "whip" in the Senate,Aldrich was known as the Wall Street Senator, a spokesman for bigbusiness and banking.

Although Aldrich hosted the meeting, credit for masterminding itis attributed to a German immigrant named Paul Warburg, who wasa partner of Kuhn, Loeb, the Rothschild's main American bankingoperation after the Civil War. Other attendees included BenjaminStrong, then head of Morgan's Bankers Trust Company; two otherheads of Morgan banks; the Assistant Secretary of the U.S. Treasury;and Frank Vanderlip, president of the National City Bank of NewYork, then the most powerful New York bank (now called Citibank),which represented William Rockefeller and Kuhn, Loeb. Morgan was

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the chief driver behind the plan, and the Morgan and Rockefellerfactions had long been arch-rivals; but they had come together in thissecret rendezvous to devise a banking scheme that would benefit themboth. Vanderlip wrote later of the meeting:

We were instructed to come one at a time and as unobtrusivelyas possible to the railroad terminal . . . where Senator Aldrich's

private car would be in readiness Discovery, we knew, simply

must not happen. ... If it were to be exposed publicly that ourparticular group had written a banking bill, that bill would haveno chance whatever of passage by Congress . . . [Although theAldrich Federal Reserve plan was defeated its essential pointswere contained in the plan that was finally adopted.1

Congressional opposition to the plan was led by William JenningsBryan and Charles Lindbergh Sr., who were strongly against any billsuggesting a central bank or control by Wall Street money. It took amajor bank panic to prompt Congress even to consider such a bill.The panic of 1907 was triggered by rumors that the KnickerbockerBank and the Trust Company of America were about to becomeinsolvent. Later evidence pointed to the House of Morgan as the sourceof the rumors. The public, believing the rumors, proceeded to makethem come true by staging a run on the banks. Morgan then noblyhelped to avert the panic by importing $100 million worth of goldfrom Europe to stop the bank run. The mesmerized public came tobelieve that the country needed a central banking system to stop futurepanics.2 Robert Owens, a co-author of the Federal Reserve Act, latertestified before Congress that the banking industry had conspired tocreate such financial panics in order to rouse the people to demand"reforms" that served the interests of the financiers.3 CongressmanLindbergh charged:

The Money Trust caused the 1907 panic [T]hose not favorable

to the Money Trust could be squeezed out of business and thepeople frightened into demanding changes in the banking andcurrency laws which the Money Trust would frame.4

The 1907 panic prompted the congressional inquiry headed bySenator Aldrich, and the clandestine Jekyll Island meeting followed.The result was a bill called the Aldrich Plan, but the alert oppositionsaw through it and soundly defeated it. Bryan said he would notsupport any bill that resulted in private money being issued by privatebanks. Federal Reserve Notes must be Treasury currency, issued and

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guaranteed by the government; and the governing body must beappointed by the President and approved by the Senate.

Morgan's Man in the White House

Morgan had another problem besides the opposition in Congress.He needed a President willing to sign his bill. William Howard Taft,the President in 1910, was not a Morgan man. McKinley had beensucceeded by his Vice President Teddy Roosevelt, who was in the Mor-gan camp and had been responsible for breaking up Rockefeller's Stan-dard Oil. Taft, who followed Roosevelt, was a Republican fromRockefeller's state of Ohio. He took vengeance on Morgan by filingantitrust suits to break up the two leading Morgan trusts, Interna-tional Harvester and United States Steel. Taft was a shoo-in for re-election in 1912. To break his hold on the Presidency, Morgan deliber-ately created a new party, the Progressive or Bull Moose Party, andbrought Teddy Roosevelt out of retirement to run as its candidate.Roosevelt took enough votes away from Taft to allow Morgan to gethis real candidate, Woodrow Wilson, elected on the Democratic ticketin 1912. Roosevelt walked away realizing he had been duped, andthe Progressive Party was liquidated soon afterwards. Wilson wassurrounded by Morgan men, including "Colonel" Edward MandellHouse, who had his own rooms at the White House. Wilson calledHouse his "alter ego."5

To get their bill passed, the Morgan faction changed its name fromthe Aldrich Bill to the Federal Reserve Act and brought it three daysbefore Christmas, when Congress was preoccupied with departurefor the holidays. The bill was so obscurely worded that no one reallyunderstood its provisions. The Aldrich team knew it would not passwithout Bryan's support, so in a spirit of apparent compromise, theymade a show of acquiescing to his demands. He said happily, "Theright of the government to issue money is not surrendered to the banks;the control over the money so issued is not relinquished by thegovernment...." So he thought; but while the national money supplywould be printed by the U.S. Bureau of Engraving and Printing, itwould be issued as an obligation or debt of the government, a debtowed back to the private Federal Reserve with interest. And whileCongress and the President would have some input in appointing theFederal Reserve Board, the Board would work behind closed doors

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with the regional bankers, without Congressional oversight or control.6The bill passed on December 22,1913, and President Wilson signedit into law the next day. Later he regretted what he had done. He isreported to have said before he died, "I have unwittingly ruined mycountry." Bryan was also disillusioned and soon resigned as Secre-tary of State, in protest over President Wilson's involvement in Europe'swar following the suspect sinking of the Lusitania.

The first chairmanship of the Federal Reserve was offered to PaulWarburg, but he declined. Instead he became vice chairman, a posi-tion he held until the end of World War I, when he relinquished it toavoid an apparent conflict of interest. He would have had to negoti-ate with his brother Max Warburg, who was then financial advisor tothe Kaiser and Director of the Reichsbank, Germany's private centralbank.7

The Incantations of Fedspeak

The Federal Reserve Act of 1913 was a major coup for theinternational bankers. They had battled for more than a century toestablish a private central bank with the exclusive right to "monetize"the government's debt (that is, to print their own money and exchangeit for government securities or I.O.U.s). The Act's preamble said thatits purposes were "to provide for the establishment of Federal ReserveBanks, to furnish an elastic currency, to afford a means of rediscountingcommercial paper, to establish a more effective supervision of bankingin the United States, and for other purposes." It was the beginning ofFedspeak, abstract economic language that shrouded the issues inobscurity. "Elastic currency" is credit that can be expanded at will bythe banks. "Rediscounting" is a technique by which banks are allowedto magically multiply funds by re-lending them without waiting foroutstanding loans to mature. In plain English, the Federal ReserveAct authorized a private central bank to create money out of nothing,lend it to the government at interest, and control the national moneysupply, expanding or contracting it at will. Representative Lindberghcalled the Act "the worst legislative crime of the ages." He warned:

[The Federal Reserve Board] can cause the pendulum of arising and falling market to swing gently back and forth by slightchanges in the discount rate, or cause violent fluctuations bygreater rate variation, and in either case it will possess insideinformation as to financial conditions and advance knowledgeof the coming change, either up or down.

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This is the strangest, most dangerous advantage ever placedin the hands of a special privilege class by any Government thatever existed. . . . The financial system has been turned over to ... apurely profiteering group. The system is private, conducted for thesole purpose of obtaining the greatest possible profits from the use ofother people's money.

In 1934, in the throes of the Great Depression, Representative LouisMcFadden would go further, stating on the Congressional record:

Some people think that the Federal Reserve Banks are UnitedStates Government institutions. They are private monopolies whichprey upon the people of these United States for the benefit of themselvesand their foreign customers; foreign and domestic speculators andswindlers; and rich and predatory money lenders. In that dark crewof financial pirates there are those who would cut a man's throatto get a dollar out of his pocket; there are those who send moneyinto states to buy votes to control our legislatures; there are thosewho maintain International propaganda for the purpose ofdeceiving us into granting of new concessions which will permitthem to cover up their past misdeeds and set again in motiontheir gigantic train of crime.

These twelve private credit monopolies were deceitfully anddisloyally foisted upon this Country by the bankers who came herefrom Europe and repaid us our hospitality by undermining ourAmerican institutions?

Who Owns the Federal Reserve?

The "Federal" Reserve is actually an independent, privately-ownedcorporation.9 It consists of twelve regional Federal Reserve banksowned by many commercial member banks. The amount of FederalReserve stock held by each member bank is proportional to its size.The Federal Reserve Bank of New York holds the majority of shares inthe Federal Reserve System (53 percent). The largest shareholders ofthe Federal Reserve Bank of New York are the largest commercial banksin the district of New York.

In 1997, the New York Federal Reserve reported that its threelargest member banks were Chase Manhattan Bank, Citibank, andMorgan Guaranty Trust Company. In 2000, JP Morgan and ChaseManhattan merged to become JPMorgan Chase Co., a bank holding

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company with combined assets of $668 billion. That made it the thirdlargest bank holding company in the country, after Citigroup (at $791billion) and Bank of America (at $679 billion). Bank of America wasfounded in California in 1904 and remains concentrated in the westernand southwestern states. Citigroup is the cornerstone of the Rockefellerempire.

In January 2004, JPMorgan Chase & Co. undertook one of thelargest bank mergers in history, when it acquired BankOne for $58billion. The result was to make this Morgan-empire bank the second-largest U.S. bank, both in terms of assets ($1.1 trillion to Citigroup'snearly $1.2 trillion) and deposits ($490 billion to Bank of America's$552 billion). JPMorgan Chase now issues the most Visas andMasterCards of any bank nationwide and holds the largest share ofU.S. credit card balances. In 2003, credit cards surpassed cash andchecks as a medium of exchange used in stores.10 Thus Citibank andJPMorgan Chase Co., the financial cornerstones of the Rockefeller andMorgan empires, are not only the two largest banks in the UnitedStates but are the two largest shareholders of the New York FederalReserve, the branch of the Fed holding a majority of the shares in theFederal Reserve system. The Federal Reserve evidently remains squarelyunder the control of the Robber Barons who devised it.

The central Federal Reserve Board in Washington was set up toinclude the Treasury Secretary and Comptroller of the Currency, bothU.S. government officials; but the Board had little control over the 12regional Federal Reserve Banks, which set most of their own policy.They followed the lead of the New York Federal Reserve Bank, wherethe Fed's real power was concentrated. Benjamin Strong, one of theJekyll Island attendees, became the first president of the New YorkFederal Reserve. Strong had close ties to the financial powers of Lon-don and owed his career to the favor of the Morgan bank.11

The Master Spider

A popular rumor has it that the Federal Reserve is owned by apowerful clique of foreign financiers, but this is obviously not true. Itis owned by Federal Reserve Banks, which are owned by Americancommercial banks, which are required by law to make their majorshareholders public; and none of these banks is predominantly foreign-owned.12 But that does not mean that the banking spider is not incontrol behind the scenes. According to Hans Schicht (the financialinsider quoted in the Introduction), the "master spider" has just moved

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to Wall Street. The greater part of U.S. banking and enterprise, saysSchicht, is now controlled by a very small inner circle of men, perhapsheaded by only one man. It is all done behind closed doors, throughthe game he calls "spider webbing." As noted earlier, the rules of thegame include exercising tight personal management and control, witha minimum of insiders and front-men who themselves have only partialknowledge of the game; exercising control through "leverage"(mergers, takeovers, chain share holdings where one company holdsshares of other companies, conditions annexed to loans, and so forth);and making any concentration of wealth invisible. The master spiderstudiously avoids close scrutiny by maintaining anonymity, taking aback seat, and appearing to be a philanthropist.13

Before World War II, the reins of international finance were heldby the powerful European banking dynasty the House of Rothschild;but during the war, control crossed the Atlantic to their Wall Streetaffiliates. Schicht maintains that the role of master spider fell to DavidRockefeller Sr., grandson on his father's side of John D. Rockefeller Sr.and on his mother's side of Nelson Aldrich, the Senator for whom theprecursor to the Federal Reserve Act was named. David Rockefellerwas a director of the Council on Foreign Relations from 1949 to 1985and its chairman from 1970 until 1985, and he founded the TrilateralCommission in 1976. Schicht states that he also convoked the 1944Bretton Woods Conference, at which the International Monetary Fundand the World Bank were devised; and he was instrumental infounding the elite international club called the "Bilderbergers."14

The Council on Foreign Relations (CFR) is an international groupset up in 1919 to advise the members' respective governments on in-ternational affairs. It has been called the preeminent intermediarybetween the world of high finance, big oil, corporate elitism, and theU.S. government. The policies it promulgates in its quarterly journalbecome U.S. government policy.15

The Trilateral Commission has been described as an elite group ofinternational bankers, media leaders, scholars and government offi-cials bent on shaping and administering a "new world order," with acentral world government held together by economic interdepen-dence.16 Former presidential candidate Barry Goldwater said of it:

The Trilateralist Commission is international [and] is intendedto be the vehicle for multinational consolidation of commercialand banking interests by seizing control of the politicalgovernment of the United States. The Trilateralist Commission

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Chapter 13 - Witches' Coven

represents a skillful, coordinated effort to seize control andconsolidate the four centers of power — political, monetary,intellectual, and ecclesiastical.

The "Bilderbergers" were described by a June 3, 2004 BBC specialas "one of the most controversial and hotly-debated alliances of ourtimes," composed of "an elite coterie of Western thinkers and power-brokers" who have been "accused of fixing the fate of the world behindclosed doors." The group has been suspected of steering internationalpolicy. Some say it plots world domination.17 But nobody knows forsure, because its members are sworn to secrecy and the press won'treport on its meetings.

The Information Monopoly

Secrecy has been maintained because the Robber Barons have beenable to use their monopoly over money to buy up the major media,educational institutions, and other outlets of public information. WhileRockefeller was buying up universities, medical schools, and theEncyclopedia Britannica, Morgan bought up newspapers. In 1917,Congressman Oscar Callaway stated on the Congressional Record:

In March, 1915, the J.P. Morgan interests, the steel, shipbuilding,and powder interests, and their subsidiary organizations, gottogether 12 men high up in the newspaper world, and employedthem to select the most influential newspapers in the UnitedStates and sufficient number of them to control generally thepolicy of the daily press of the United States. . . . They found itwas only necessary to purchase the control of 25 of the greatestpapers. The 25 papers were agreed upon; emissaries were sentto purchase the policy, national and international, of thesepapers; ... an editor was furnished for each paper to properlysupervise and edit information regarding the questions ofpreparedness, militarism, financial policies, and other things ofnational and international nature considered vital to the interestsof the purchasers [and to suppress] everything in opposition tothe wishes of the interests served.18

By 1983, according to Dean Ben Bagdikian in the The Media Mo-nopoly, fifty corporations owned half or more of the media business.By 2000, that number was down to six corporations, with directoratesinterlocked with each other and with major commercial banks.19Howard Zinn observes:

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Web of Debt

[W]hether you have a Republican or a Democrat in power, theRobber Barons are still there. . . . Under the Clinton administra-tion, more mergers of huge corporations took place [than] hadever taken place before under any administration. . . . [W]hetheryou have Republicans or Democrats in power, big business is themost powerful voice in the halls of Congress and in the ears ofthe President of the United States.20

In The Underground History of American Education, publishedin 2000, educator John Taylor Gatto traces how Rockefeller, Morganand other members of the financial elite influenced, guided, funded,and at times forced compulsory schooling into the mainstream ofAmerican society. They needed three things for their corporate inter-ests to thrive: (1) compliant employees, (2) a guaranteed and depen-dent population, and (3) a predictable business environment. It waslargely to promote these ends, says Gatto, that modern compulsoryschooling was established.21

Harnessing the Tax Base

The Robber Barons had succeeded in monopolizing the moneyspigots, the oil spigots, and the public's access to information; butMorgan wanted more. He wanted to secure the banks' loans to thegovernment with a reliable source of taxes, one that was imposeddirectly on the incomes of the people.22 There was just one snag inthis plan: a federal income tax had consistently been declaredunconstitutional by the U.S. Supreme Court ....

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Chapter 14HARNESSING THE LION:THE FEDERAL INCOME TAX

With Dorothy hard at work, the Witch thought she would go intothe courtyard and harness the Cowardly Lion like a horse. It wouldamuse her, she was sure, to make him draw her chariot whenever shewished to go to drive.

- The Wonderful Wizard ofOz,"The Search for the Wicked Witch"

If the Cowardly Lion represented the people unaware of theirpower, the harness that would hitch the Lion to the chariot ofthe bankers was the federal income tax. Slipping the harness over theLion's mane was no mean feat. The American people had chafed atthe burden of taxes ever since King George III had imposed them onthe colonies. The colonists had been taxed for all sorts of consumergoods, from tea to tobacco to legal documents. Taxation without rep-resentation led to the revolt of the Boston Tea Party, in which colo-nists dumped tea into the Boston Harbor rather than pay tax on it.

In designing the Constitution for their new Utopia, the FoundingFathers left the federal income tax out. They considered the taxationof private income, the ultimate source of productivity, to be economicfolly. To avoid excess taxation, they decided at the Federalist Debatesthat the States and the new federal government could not impose thesame kind of tax at the same time. For example, if the States imposeda property tax, the federal government could not impose one. Con-gress would be responsible for collecting national taxes from the States,which would collect taxes from their citizens. Direct taxes were to beapportioned according to the population of each State. Income taxeswere considered unapportioned direct taxes in violation of this provi-sion of the Constitution.

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The absence of an income tax had allowed the economy to growand its citizens to prosper for over a century. From 1776 to 1913,except for brief periods when the country was at war, the federalgovernment had been successfully funded mainly with customs andexcise taxes.' In 1812, to fund the War of 1812, the first sales tax wasimposed on gold, silverware, jewelry and watches. The first incometax was also imposed that year; but in order to comply with constitu-tional requirements, it was apportioned among the States, which col-lected the tax from property owners. In 1817, when the war wasover, the new taxes were terminated.1

The first national income tax as we know it was imposed in 1862.Again it was to support a war effort, the War between the States. Thetax was set at a mere one to three percent of income, and it appliedonly to those having annual incomes over $800, a category that thenincluded less than one percent of the population. Congress avoidedConstitutional apportionment requirements by classifying the new taxas an indirect tax. It was a misapplication of the law, but the tax wasnot challenged until 1871. The delay allowed a precedent to be estab-lished by which Congress could bypass constitutional restrictions byincorrectly classifying taxes.

In 1872, this tax too was repealed. Another income tax was passedin 1894; but no war was in progress to win sympathy for it, and it wasimmediately struck down by the U.S. Supreme Court. In 1895, inPollock v. Farmer's Loan & Trust Co., the Court held that generalincome taxes violate the constitutional guideline that taxes levied di-rectly on the people are to be levied in proportion to the population ofeach State.

That ruling has never been overruled. Instead, the Wall Streetfaction decided to make an end run around the Constitution. In 1913,the Sixteenth Amendment was introduced to Congress as a packagedeal along with the Federal Reserve Act. Both were supported by theWall Street Senator, Nelson Aldrich. The Amendment provided:

The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes onincomes, from whatever source derived, without apportionmentamong the several states, and without regard to any census orenumeration.

1 Customs are duties on imported goods. Excise taxes are internal taxesimposed on certain non-essential consumer goods.

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Wealthy businessmen who had opposed a federal income tax werewon over when they learned they could avoid paying the tax themselvesby setting up tax-free foundations. The tax affected only incomes over$4,000 a year, a sum that was then well beyond the wages of mostAmericans. The Amendment was simply worded, the tax return wasonly one page long, and the entire Tax Code was only 14 pages long.It seemed harmless enough at the time ....

From Little Amendments Mighty Hydras Grow

The Tax Code is now a 17,000-page sieve of obscure legalese,providing enormous loopholes for those who can afford the lobbyiststo negotiate them. Corporations with enough clout, such as Enron,have had whole pages devoted to their private interests. Enron paidno taxes for four of the five years from 1996 through 2000, although itwas profitable during those years.2 The tax system has become socomplex that tens of millions of taxpayers have to seek professionalhelp to comply with its mandates. At least $250 billion are paidannually for these services, in addition to the $8 billion required tooperate the Internal Revenue Service itself. The IRS has 144,000employees - more than all but the 36 largest U.S. corporations - and itemploys more investigators than the FBI and the CIA combined.According to calculations made in 1995, more than five billion hoursare spent annually in the effort to comply with federal income taxrequirements - close to the total number of hours worked yearly by allthe people in all the jobs in the State of Indiana.3

The obscure court holdings testing the Tax Code's constitutional-ity can be as impenetrable as the Code itself. Take, for example, thisconvoluted single sentence in a tax case titled Brushaber v. Union Pa-cific Railroad, 240 U.S. 1 (1916):

[T]he contention that the Amendment treats a tax on income asa direct tax although it is relieved from apportionment and isnecessarily therefore not subject to the rule of uniformity as suchrule only applies to taxes which are not direct, thus destroyingthe two great classifications which have been recognized andenforced from the beginning, is also wholly without foundationsince the command of the Amendment that all income taxesshall not be subject to apportionment by a consideration of thesources from which the taxed income may be derived, forbids

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the application to such taxes of the rule applied in the PollockCase by which alone such taxes were removed from the greatclass of excises, duties and imposts subject to the rule ofuniformity and were placed under the other or direct class.4

The Brushaber case, while not easy to decipher, has been construedas holding that the Sixteenth Amendment does not overrule Pollock indeclaring general income taxes unconstitutional, and that theAmendment does not amend the U.S. Constitution on the question ofincome taxes. Rather, said the Court, the Sixteenth Amendment appliesto excise taxes; it merely clarifies the federal government's existingauthority to create excise taxes without apportionment; and it appliesonly to gains and profits from commercial and investment activities.5

Watering the Hydra

These fine points were of little interest to most people before WorldWar II, since few people were actually affected by the tax; but waragain provided the pretext for expanding the law's scope. In 1939,Congress passed the Public Salary tax, taxing the wages of federalemployees. In 1940 it passed the Buck Act, authorizing the federalgovernment to tax federal workers living outside Washington D.C. In1942, Congress passed the Victory Tax under its Constitutionalauthority to support the country's war efforts. A voluntary tax-withholding program was proposed by President Roosevelt whichallowed workers to pay the tax in installments. This program was sosuccessful that the number of taxpayers increased from 3 percent to62 percent of the U.S. population. In 1944, the Victory Tax andVoluntary Withholding Laws were repealed as required by the U.S.Constitution. But the federal government, without raising the matterbefore the Court or the voters, continued to collect the income tax,pointing for authority to the Sixteenth Amendment.6

Today the federal income tax has acquired the standing of alegitimate tax enforceable by law, despite longstanding rulings by theSupreme Court strictly limiting its constitutional scope. Other taxeshave also been added to the list, which currently includes an AccountsReceivable Tax, Building Permit Tax, Capital Gains Tax, CDL LicenseTax, Cigarette Tax, Corporate Income Tax, Federal UnemploymentTax (FUTA), Food License Tax, Fuel Permit Tax, Gasoline Tax,Inheritance Tax, Inventory Tax, IRS Interest Charges, IRS Penalties,Liquor Tax, Luxury Taxes, Marriage License Tax, Medicare Tax,

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Property Tax, Real Estate Tax, Service Charge Taxes, Road Usage Taxes(Truckers), Road and Toll Bridge Taxes, Sales Tax, School Tax, SocialSecurity Tax, State Unemployment Tax (SUTA), Telephone Taxes andSurcharges, Trailer Registration Tax, Utility Taxes, Vehicle LicenseRegistration Tax, Vehicle Sales Tax, and Workers Compensation Tax,among others. Estimates are that when the hidden taxes paid byworkers all the way up the chain of production are factored in, over40 percent of the average citizen's income may be going to taxes.7

Was the Sixteenth Amendment Properly Ratified?

A variety of challenges to the Tax Code have been prompted byinequities in the system. In 1984, a tax protester named Bill Bensonspent a year visiting State capitals, researching whether the SixteenthAmendment was properly ratified by the States in 1913. He foundthat of the 38 States allegedly ratifying it, 33 had amended the lan-guage to say something other than what was passed, a power Statesdo not possess. He argued that the Amendment was properly ratifiedby only two States. He attempted unsuccessfully to defend a suit fortax evasion on that ground, and spent some time in jail; but that didnot deter later tax protesters from raising the defense. In 1989, theSeventh Circuit Court of Appeals again rejected the argument, notbecause the court disagreed with the data but because it concludedthat when Secretary of State Philander Knox declared the amend-ment adopted in 1913, he had taken the defects into consideration.Knox's decision, said the Seventh Circuit, "is now beyond review."8

So Who Was Philander Knox?

It comes as no great surprise that Philander Knox was the RobberBarons' man behind the scenes. He was an attorney who became amulti-millionaire as legal counsel to multi-millionaires. He savedAndrew Carnegie from prosecution and civil suit in 1894, when itwas shown that Carnegie had defrauded the Navy with inferior armorplate for U.S. warships. Knox saved Carnegie again when thepresident of the Pennsylvania Railroad testified that Carnegie hadregularly received illegal kickbacks from the railroad. Knox also savedhis college friend William McKinley from financial ruin, beforeMcKinley won the 1896 presidential race. In 1899, President McKinleyoffered Knox the post of U.S. Attorney General, but he declined. He

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Chapter 14 - Harnessing the Lion

was then too busy arranging the largest conglomerate in history, themerger of the railroad, oil, coal, iron and steel interests of Carnegie, J.P. Morgan, Rockefeller, and other Robber Barons into U.S. Steel. Aftercompleting the U.S. Steel merger, Knox accepted McKinley's offer,over vigorous opposition. The appointment put him in charge ofprosecuting the antitrust laws against the same Robber Barons he hadbuilt a career and a personal fortune representing. When the U.S.Steel merger met with public outcry, Knox said he knew nothing andcould do nothing, and U.S. Steel emerged unscathed.

When McKinley was assassinated in 1901, Knox continued asAttorney General under Teddy Roosevelt, drafting federal statutes thatgave his wealthy and powerful friends even more power and controlover interstate commerce. Agents of the conglomerates wound upsitting on the government boards and commissions that set rates andeliminated competition in restraint of trade. Knox was appointedSecretary of State by President Taft in 1909, when Senator Aldrichgave the Sixteenth Amendment a decisive push through Congress.The Amendment was rushed through right before Knox resigned asSecretary of State. That may explain why he was willing to overlooka few irregularities. If he had left the matter to a successor, there wasno telling the outcome.9

Do We Need a Federal Income Tax?

In upholding these irregularities against constitutional challenge,courts may have been motivated by a perceived need to preserve afederal income tax that has come to be considered indispensable tofunding the government. But is it? A report issued by the GraceCommission during the Reagan Administration concluded that mostfederal income tax revenues go just to pay the interest on the government'sburgeoning debt. Indeed, that was the purpose for which the tax wasoriginally designed. When the federal income tax was instituted in1913, all income tax collections were forwarded directly to the FederalReserve. In fiscal year 2005, the U.S. government spent $352 billionjust to service the government's debt. The sum represented more thanone-third of individual income tax revenues that year, which totaled$927 billion.10

As for the other two-thirds of the individual income tax tab, theGrace Commission concluded that those payments did not go to servicenecessary government operations either. A cover letter addressed to

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Web of Debt

President Reagan stated that a third of all income taxes were consumedby waste and inefficiency in the federal government. Another third ofany taxes actually paid went to make up for the taxes not paid by taxevaders and the burgeoning underground economy, a phenomenonthat had blossomed in direct proportion to tax increases. The reportconcluded:

With two-thirds of everyone's personal income taxes wasted ornot collected, 100 percent of what is collected is absorbed solelyby interest on the Federal debt and by Federal Governmentcontributions to transfer payments. In other words, all individualincome tax revenues are gone before one nickel is spent on the serviceswhich taxpayers expect from their Government.11

Even the third going for interest on the federal debt could havebeen avoided, if Congress had created the money itself on the Franklin/Lincoln model. But the obscurely-worded Federal Reserve Actdelegated the power to create money to a private banking monopoly;and Congress, like the sleeping public, had been deceived by thebankers' sleight of hand. The head had thundered and the walls hadshook. The wizard's wizardry had worked, at least on the mesmerizedmajority. Among the few who remained awake was RepresentativeCharles Lindbergh Sr., who warned on the day the Federal ReserveAct was passed:

This Act establishes the most gigantic trust on earth. When thePresident signs this bill, the invisible government by the MonetaryPower will be legalized. The people may not know itimmediately, but the day of reckoning is only a few yearsremoved.

The day of reckoning came just sixteen years later.

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Chapter 15REAPING THE WHIRLWIND:THE GREAT DEPRESSION

Uncle Henry sat upon the doorstep and looked anxiously at thesky, which was even grayer than usual. . . . From the far north theyheard a low wail of the wind, and Uncle Henry and Dorothy could seewhere the long grass bowed in waves before the coming storm.

- The Wonderful Wizard of Oz,"The Cyclone"

The stock market crashed in 1929, precipitating a worldwide depression that lasted a decade. Few people rememberit today, but we can still get the flavor in the movies. The GreatDepression was depicted in the barren black-and-white Kansas droughtopening the 1939 film The Wizard of Oz. It was also the setting forIt's a Wonderful Life, a classic 1946 film shown on TV every Christmas.The film starred Jimmy Stewart as a beloved small-town banker namedGeorge Bailey, who was driven to consider suicide after a "run" onhis bank, when the townspeople all demanded their money and hecouldn't pay. The promise of the Federal Reserve Act - that it wouldprevent bank panics by allowing a conglomeration of big banks tocome to the rescue of little banks that got caught short-handed - hadobviously failed. The Crash of 1929 was the biggest bank run inhistory.

The problem began in the Roaring Twenties, when the Fed mademoney plentiful by keeping interest rates low. Money seemed to beplentiful, but what was actually flowing freely was "credit" or "debt."Production was up more than wages were up, so more goods wereavailable than money to pay for them; but people could borrow. Bythe end of the 1920s, major consumer purchases such as cars andradios (which were then large pieces of furniture that sat on the floor)

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were bought mainly on credit. Money was so easy to get that peoplewere borrowing just to invest, taking out short-term, low-interest loansthat were readily available from the banks.

The stock market held little interest for most people until the RobberBarons started promoting it, after amassing large stock holdings verycheaply themselves. They sold the public on the idea that it was possibleto get rich quick by buying stock on "margin" (or on credit). Theinvestor could put a down payment on the stock and pay off the balanceafter its price went up, reaping a hefty profit. This investment strategyturned the stock market into a speculative pyramid scheme, in whichmost of the money invested did not actually exist.1 People would openmargin accounts, not because they could not afford to pay 100 percentof the stock price, but because it allowed them to leverage theirinvestments, buying ten times as much stock by paying only a 10 percentdown payment.' The public went wild over this scheme. In aspeculative fever, many people literally "bet the farm." They weretaking out loans against everything they owned - homes, farms, lifeinsurance - anything to get the money to get into the market andmake more money. Homesteads that had been owned free and clearwere mortgaged to the bankers, who fanned the fever by offeringfavorable credit terms and interest rates.2 The Federal Reserve madethese favorable terms possible by substantially lowering the rediscountrate - the interest rate member banks paid to borrow from the Fed.The Fed thus made it easy for the banks to acquire additional reserves,against which they could expand the money supply by many multipleswith loans.

Hands Across the Atlantic

Why would the Fed want to flood the U.S. economy with borrowedmoney, inflating the money supply? The evidence points to a schemebetween Benjamin Strong, then Governor of the Federal Reserve Bankof New York, and Montagu Norman, head of the Bank of England, todeliver control of the financial systems of the world to a small groupof private central bankers. Strong was a Morgan man who had a veryclose relationship with Norman - so close that it was evidently morethan just business. In 1928, when Strong had to retire due to illness,Norman wrote intimately, "Whatever is to happen to us - wherever

Leveraging means buying securities with borrowed money.

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you and I are to live - we cannot now separate and ignore these years.Somehow we must meet and sometimes we must live together . . . ."4Professor Carroll Quigley wrote of Norman and Strong:

In the 1920s, they were determined to use the financial powerof Britain and of the United States to force all the major countriesof the world to go on the gold standard and to operate it throughcentral banks free from all political control, with all questions ofinternational finance to be settled by agreements by such centralbanks without interference from governments.4

Norman, as head of the Bank of England, was determined to keepthe British pound convertible to gold at pre-war levels, although thepound had lost substantial value as against gold during World War I.The result was a major drain on British gold reserves. To keep goldfrom flowing out of England into the United States, the Federal Re-serve, led by Strong, supported the Bank of England by keeping U.S.interest rates low, inflating the U.S. dollar. The higher interest rates inLondon made it a more attractive place for investors to put their gold,drawing it from the United States to England; but the lower rates inthe United States caused an inflation bubble, which soon got out ofhand. The meetings between Norman and Strong were very secre-tive, but the evidence suggests that in February 1929, they concludedthat a collapse in the market was inevitable and that the best coursewas to let it correct "naturally" (naturally, that is, with a little helpfrom the Fed). They sent advisory warnings to lists of preferred cus-tomers, including wealthy industrialists, politicians, and high foreignofficials, telling them to get out of the market. Then the Fed beganselling government securities in the open market, reducing the moneysupply by reducing the reserves available for backing loans. The bank-loan rate was also increased, causing rates on brokers' loans to jumpto 20 percent.5

The result was a huge liquidity squeeze - a lack of available money.Short-term loans suddenly became available only at much higher in-terest rates, making buying stock on margin much less attractive. Asfewer people bought, stock prices fell, removing the incentive for newbuyers to purchase the stocks bought by earlier buyers on margin.Many investors were forced to sell at a loss by "margin calls" (calls bybrokers for investors to bring the cash in their margin accounts up to acertain level after the value of their stocks had fallen). The panic wason, as investors rushed to dump their stocks for whatever they couldget for them. The stock market crashed overnight. People withdrew

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their savings from the banks and foreigners withdrew their gold, fur-ther depleting the reserves on which the money stock was built. From1929 to 1933, the money stock fell by a third, and a third of the nation'sbanks closed their doors. Strong said privately that the problem couldeasily be corrected by adding money to the shrinking money supply;but unfortunately for the country, he died suddenly without passingthis bit of wisdom on.5 It was dramatic evidence of the dangers ofdelegating the power to control the money supply to a single auto-cratic head of an autonomous agency.

A vicious cyclone of debt wound up dragging all in its path intohunger, poverty and despair. Little money was available to buy goods,so workers got laid off. Small-town bankers like George Bailey werelucky if they escaped bankruptcy, but the big banks made out quitewell. Many wealthy insiders also did quite well, quietly pulling out ofthe stock market just before the crash, then jumping back in whenthey could buy up companies for pennies on the dollar. While smallinvestors were going under and jumping from windows, the Big MoneyBoys were accumulating the stocks that had been sold at distressedprices and the real estate that had been mortgaged to buy the stocks.The country's wealth was systematically being transferred from theGreat American Middle Class to Big Money.

The Homestead Laws were established in the days of AbrahamLincoln to encourage settlers to move onto the land and develop it.The country had been built by these homesteaders, who staked outtheir plots of land, farmed them, and defended them. That was thebasis of capitalism and the American dream, the "level playing field"on which the players all had a fair start and something to work with.The field was level until the country was swept by depression, whenhomes and farms that had been in the family since the Civil War orthe Revolution were sucked up in a cyclone of debt and delivered intothe hands of the banks and financial elite.

Austerity for the Poor,Welfare for the International Bankers

The Federal Reserve scheme had failed, but Congress did not shutdown the shell game and prosecute the perpetrators. Rather, the Fed-eral Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) was instituted, ostensiblyto prevent the Great Depression from ever happening again. It woulddo this by having the federal government provide backup money to

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cover bank failures, furnishing a form of insurance for the banks atthe expense of the taxpayers. The FDIC was prepared to rescue somebanks but not all. It was designed to favor rich and powerful banks.Ed Griffin writes in The Creature from Tekyll Island:

The FDIC has three options when bailing out an insolvent bank.The first is called a payoff. It involves simply paying off theinsured depositors [those with deposits under $100,000] and thenletting the bank fall to the mercy of the liquidators. This is theoption usually chosen for small banks with no political clout.The second possibility is called a sell off and it involves makingarrangements for a larger bank to assume all the real assets andliabilities of the failing bank. Banking services are uninterruptedand, aside from a change in name, most customers are unawareof the transaction. This option is generally selected for smalland medium banks. In both a payoff and a sell off, the FDICtakes over the bad loans of the failed bank and supplies the moneyto pay back the insured depositors. The third option is calledbailout .... Irvine Sprague, a former director of the FDIC,explains: "In a bailout, the bank does not close, and everyone -insured or not - is fully protected. . . . Such privileged treatmentis accorded by FDIC only rarely to an elect few."

The "elect few" are the wealthy and powerful banks that areconsidered "too big to fail" without doing irreparable harm to thecommunity. In a bailout, the FDIC covers all of the bank's deposits,even those over $100,000. Wealthy investors, including wealthy foreigninvestors, are fully protected. Griffin observes:

Favoritism toward the large banks is obvious at many levels. . . .[T]he large banks get a whopping free ride when they are bailedout. Their uninsured accounts are paid by FDIC, and the cost ofthat benefit is passed to the smaller banks and to the taxpayer.This is not an oversight. Part of the plan at Jekyll Island was to givea competitive edge to the large banks.7

The FDIC shielded the bankers both from losses to themselves andfrom prosecution for the losses of others. Later, the InternationalMonetary Fund was devised to serve the same backup function whenwhole countries defaulted. Austerity measures and belt-tighteningwere imposed on the poor while welfare was provided for the rich,saving the moneyed class from the consequences of their own riskyinvestments.

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The Blame Game

Who was to blame for this decade-long cyclone of debt anddevastation? Milton Friedman, professor of economics at the Universityof Chicago and winner of a Nobel Prize in economics, stated:

The Federal Reserve definitely caused the Great Depression bycontracting the amount of currency in circulation by one-thirdfrom 1929 to 1933.

The Honorable Louis T. McFadden, Chairman of the House Bank-ing and Currency Committee, went further. He charged:

[The depression] was not accidental. It was a carefully contrivedoccurrence. . . . The international bankers sought to bring about acondition of despair here so that they might emerge as rulers of usall.8

Representative McFadden could not be accused of partisan politics.He had been elected by the citizens of Pennsylvania on both theDemocratic and Republican tickets, and he had served as Chairmanof the Banking and Currency Committee for more than ten years,putting him in a position to speak with authority on the vastramifications of the gigantic private credit monopoly of the FederalReserve. In 1934, he filed a Petition for Articles of Impeachment againstthe Federal Reserve Board, charging fraud, conspiracy, unlawfulconversion and treason. He told Congress:

This evil institution has impoverished and ruined the people ofthese United States, has bankrupted itself, and has practicallybankrupted our Government. It has done this through the defectsof the law under which it operates, through the maladministrationof that law by the Fed and through the corrupt practices of themoneyed vultures who control it.

. . . From the Atlantic to the Pacific, our Country has beenravaged and laid waste by the evil practices of the Fed and theinterests which control them. At no time in our history, has thegeneral welfare of the people been at a lower level or the minds ofthe people so full of despair. . . .

Recently in one of our States, 60,000 dwelling houses and farmswere brought under the hammer in a single day. 71,000 houses andfarms in Oakland County, Michigan, were sold and their erstwhileowners dispossessed. The people who have thus been driven outare the wastage of the Fed. They are the victims of the Fed. Their

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children are the new slaves of the auction blocks in the revival of theinstitution of human slavery.9

A document called "The Bankers Manifesto of 1934" added weightto these charges. An update of "The Bankers Manifesto of 1892," itwas reportedly published in The Civil Servants' Yearbook in January1934 and in The New American in February 1934, and was circulatedprivately among leading bankers. It read in part:

Capital must protect itself in every way, through combination[monopoly] and through legislation. Debts must be collectedand loans and mortgages foreclosed as soon as possible. Whenthrough a process of law, the common people have lost theirhomes, they will be more tractable and more easily governed bythe strong arm of the law applied by the central power of wealth,under control of leading financiers. People without homes willnot quarrel with their leaders. This is well known among ourprincipal men now engaged in forming an imperialism of capitalto govern the world.10

That was the sinister view of the Great Depression. The charitableexplanation was that the Fed had simply misjudged. Whatever hadhappened, the monetary policy of the day had clearly failed. Changewas in the wind. Over 2,000 schemes for monetary reform were ad-vanced, and populist organizations again developed large followings.

Return to Oz: Coxey Runs for President

Nearly four decades after he had led the march on Washingtonthat inspired the march on Oz, Jacob Coxey reappeared on the sceneto run on the Farmer-Labor Party ticket for President. Coxey, whowas nothing if not persistent, actually ran for office thirteen timesbetween 1894 and 1936. He was elected only twice, as mayor ofMassillon, Ohio, in 1932 and 1933; but he did succeed in winning amajority in the Ohio presidential primary in 1932.11

Franklin Roosevelt came from banking and railroad money andhad the support of big business along with the general public. Heeasily won the presidential election. But Coxey maintained that itwas his own plan for government-financed public works that was theblueprint for the "New Deal," the program widely credited withpulling the country out of the Depression.12 It was the same planCoxey had proposed in the 1890s: Congress could jump-start theeconomy by "priming the pump" with various public projects that

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Chapter 15 - Reaping the Whirlwind

would put the unemployed to work, using government-issued, debt-free money to pay for the labor and materials. Roosevelt adopted thepump-priming part but not the proposal to finance it with debt-freeGreenbacks. A bill called the Thomas Amendment was passed duringhis tenure that actually authorized new issues of governmentGreenbacks, but no Greenbacks were issued under it. Instead,Roosevelt financed the New Deal with deficit spending and taxincreases.

In 1944, Coxey was honored for his work by being allowed todeliver a speech on the Capitol steps, with the formal blessing of theVice President and the Speaker of the House. It was the same speechhe had been barred from giving there half a century before. In 1946,at the age of 92, he published a new plan to avoid unemployment andfuture wars. He died in 1951, at the age of 97.13

Another Aging Populist Returns

Another blast from the past on the presidential campaign trail wasWilliam Hope Harvey, author of Coin's Financial School and economicadviser to William Jennings Bryan in the 1890s. Harvey ran for Presi-dent in 1932 on the Liberty Party ticket. Like Coxey, he was an ob-scure candidate who was later lost to history; but his insights wouldprove to be prophetic. Harvey stressed that people who took out loansat a bank were not actually borrowing "money." They were borrow-ing debt; and the commercial oligarchy to whom it was owed wouldeventually end up running the country. The workers would live oncredit and buy at the company store, becoming wage-slaves whoowned nothing of their own.

Harvey considered money to be a direct representation of a man'slabor, and usury and debt to be a scheme to put middleman bankersbetween a man's labor and his property. Even efficient farmersoperating on the debt-money system would eventually have some badyears, and some would default on their loans. Every year there wouldbe a certain number of foreclosures and the banks would get the land,which would be sold to the larger farm owners. The country's propertywould thus gradually become concentrated in fewer and fewer hands.The farms, factories and businesses would wind up owned by a fewindividuals and corporations that were controlled by the bankers whocontrolled the money supply. At the heart of the problem, said Harvey,was the Federal Reserve System, which allowed banks to issue debt

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Web of Debt

and pretend it was money. This sleight of hand was what had allowedthe bankers to slowly foreclose on the country, moving ownership tothe Wall Street banks, brokerage houses and insurance companies.The ultimate culprit was the English banking system, which hadinfected and corrupted America's banking system. It was the Englishwho had first demonetized silver in 1816, and who had decreased thevalue of everything else by hoarding gold. Debts to English banks hadto be paid in gold, and countries that did not produce gold had to buyit to pay their debts to England. The result was to drive down thevalue of the goods those countries did produce, indenturing them tothe English bankers. In a fictionalized book called A Tale of TwoCountries, Harvey wrote of a fat English banker named Baron Rothe,who undertook to corrupt the American economy and government inorder to place the reins of the country in the hands of his worldwidebanking system.

Harvey's solution was to return the Money Power to the people,something he proposed doing by nationalizing the banks. He wouldhave nationalized other essential industries as well - those that oper-ated on a large scale and produced basic commodities, including pub-lic utilities, transportation, and steel. The profits would have goneinto the public coffers, replacing taxes, which Harvey thought shouldbe abolished. The Populists of the 1890s had campaigned to expandthe money supply by adding silver to the gold that backed paper money,but Harvey now felt that both gold and silver should be de-monetized.The national currency did not need precious metal backing. It couldbe what Franklin and Lincoln said it was - simply a receipt for labor.Paper money could be backed by government services. That is a novelidea today, but it has a familiar precedent: the postage stamp is a kindof money redeemable in government services. One postage stamprepresents the amount of government labor required to transport oneletter from one place to another. Postage stamps are fungible and canbe saved or traded.14

Although Harvey and Coxey both failed in their politicalaspirations, elements of the platforms of both were adopted in theNew Deal. The dollar was taken off the gold standard, just as Harveyhad advocated; and the economy was jump-started by putting theunemployed to work, just as Coxey had advocated. Roosevelt camefrom banker money and had the support of big business, but he alsohad a strong streak of the can-do Populist spirit ....

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Chapter 16OILING THE RUSTED JOINTSOF THE ECONOMY:ROOSEVELT, KEYNESAND THE NEW DEAL

"What can I do for you?" she inquired softly ....

"Get an oilcan and oil my joints," he answered. "They are rustedso badly that I cannot move them at all. If I am well oiled I shall soonbe all right again."

- The Wonderful Wizard ofOz,"The Rescue of the Tin Woodman"

In the Great Depression, labor had again rusted into non-productivity, due to a lack of available money to oil the wheelsof production. In the 1890s, Coxey's plan to "prime the pump" withpublic projects was an idea ahead of its time; but in the 1930s, Rooseveltactually carried it out. The result was a national infrastructure thathas been called a revolutionary model for the world. The TennesseeValley Authority developed hydroelectric power for farming areas thathad never had electricity before. It accomplished flood control andriver diversion, provided scientific agriculture, developed new indus-try, and overcame illiteracy by spreading public education. The RuralElectrification Administration was built, along with tens of thousandsof sanitation projects, hospitals, schools, ports and public buildings.Public works programs were launched, employing millions of work-ers. Revolutionary social programs were also introduced, includingSocial Security for the aged and disabled, unemployment insurance,and the right of labor to organize. Farm and home foreclosures werestopped, and savings accounts were restored.1

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A farm policy of "parity pricing" was enacted that ensured thatthe prices received by farmers covered the prices they paid for inputplus a reasonable profit. If the farmers could not get the parity price,the government would buy their output, put it into storage, and sell itlater. The government actually made a small profit on thesetransactions; food prices were kept stable; and the family farm systemwas preserved as the safeguard of the national food supply. With thepush for "globalization" in later decades, thousands of family farmerswere forced out of the farming business. Farm parity was replacedwith farm "subsidies" that favored foods for export and wereinsufficient to cover rising costs in fuel, feed and fertilizer.2

Where did Roosevelt get the money for all the pump-primingprograms in his New Deal? Coxey's plan was to issue the moneyoutright, but Roosevelt did not go that far. Even for the governmentto borrow the money was considered radical at the time. The dogmaof the day was that the federal budget must be balanced at all costs.The novel idea that the government could borrow the money it neededwas suggested by John Maynard Keynes, a respected British economist,who argued that this was a more sensible course than austerely tryingto balance the budget when funds were not to be had. In an openletter in The New York Times, Keynes advised Roosevelt that "onlythe expenditures of public authority" could reverse the Depression.The government had to spend to get money into circulation.

Keynes has been called an elitist, because he was an intellectualwith expensive tastes, wealthy friends and banker affiliations; but likeRoosevelt, he had a strong streak of the can-do Populist spirit. At atime when conventional economists were gloomy naysayers maintain-ing that nothing could be done, Keynes was an optimist who thoughtlike the Wizard of Oz. There was no reason to put up with recession,depression and unemployment. Balancing the budget by cutting jobs,at a time when people were already out of work, he thought waseconomic folly. The way to get the ball rolling again was just to rollup your sleeves and get busy. It could all be paid for on credit!

But Keynes would not go so far as to advocate that the govern-ment should issue the money outright. "Increasing the quantity ofmoney is like trying to get fat by buying a larger belt," he said.3 It wasa colorful analogy but a questionable one. The money supply had justshrunk by a third. The emaciated patient needed to be fattened upwith a good infusion of liquidity just to replace the money that hadbeen lost.

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Keynes started thinking more like the Greenbackers at the end ofWorld War II, when he proposed a debt-free Greenback-style currencycalled the "Bancor" to serve as the reserves of the International Mon-etary Fund (the fund established to stabilize global currencies). But bythen England's economic power had been exhausted by two worldwars, and America called the shots. The Bancor lost out to the U.S.dollar, which would become the world's reserve currency along withgold. (More on this in Section III.)

Challenging Classical Economic Theory

The Keynesian theory that dominated economic policy after WorldWar II was the one endorsing "deficit spending." The notion that thegovernment could borrow its way to prosperity represented a majordeparture from classical economic theory. The classical "quantitytheory of money" held that there was no need to increase the amountof money in circulation. When the money supply contracted, pricesand wages would naturally adjust downward, leaving all as it wasbefore. Murray Rothbard, an economist of the classical Austrian School,put it like this:

We come to the startling truth that it doesn't matter what thesupply of money is. Any supply will do as well as any othersupply. The free market will simply adjust by changing thepurchasing power, or effectiveness, of its [monetary] unit. Thereis no need whatever for any planned increase in the moneysupply, for the supply to rise to offset any condition, or to followany artificial criteria. More money does not supply more capital,is not more productive, does not permit "economic growth."4

That was the theory, but in the Great Depression it clearly wasn'tworking. The country was suffering from crippling unemployment,although people wanted to work, there was work to be done, andthere were consumers wanting to purchase the fruits of their produc-tive labors. The farmers' hens were laying, but the eggs never made itto market. The cows were producing milk, but the milk was beingdumped on the ground. The apple trees were producing bumper crops,but the growers were leaving them to rot in the orchards. Peopleeverywhere were out of work and starving; yet the land was still fer-tile, the factories were ready to roll, and the raw materials were avail-able to run them. Keynes said that what was needed was the very

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thing classical economists said would have no effect - an infusion ofnew money to get the wheels of production turning again.

Roosevelt was slow to go along with Keynes' radical notions, butas the Depression got worse, he decided to give them a try. He toldthe country in a fireside chat, "We suffer from a failure of consumerdemand because of a lack of buying power." When the United Statesentered World War II, Roosevelt had no choice but to test the limits ofthe national credit card; and in a dramatic empirical display, the pump-priming theory was proven to work. Unemployment dropped frommore than 17 percent to just over 1 percent. The economy grew alongwith the money supply to double its original size, the fastest growth inU.S. history.5 The country was pulled out of the Depression by prim-ing the pump with liquidity, funding new production that put newwages in consumers' pockets.

Keynes had turned classical theory on its head. The classicalassumption was that output ("supply") was fixed and that prices wereflexible. Increasing "demand" (money) would therefore increase prices.Keynes said that prices tended to be fixed and output to be flexible.6When the economy was operating at less than full employment, addingmoney would not increase prices. It would increase productivity. Aslong as there were idle resources to draw from, watering a liquidity-starved economy with new money would not produce inflation; itwould produce abundance.

And that was how it actually worked, for a while; but addingliquidity by borrowing money into existence did not actually createmoney. It created debt; and to service the debt, the taxpayers had topay interest compounded annually. Roosevelt's plan put people towork, putting more money in their pockets; but much of this moneywas taken out again in the form of taxes, which went largely to paythe burgeoning interest tab. From 1933 to 1940, federal taxes tripled.In the New Deal years, the average annual federal budget deficit wasabout $3 billion out of an entire federal budget of $6 billion to $9 billion— a greater percentage even than today, when deficit spending hasreached record levels.7 Wholesale endorsement of Keynesian deficitspending caused the federal debt to balloon from $22 billion in 1933 to$8 trillion in 2005, a 364-fold increase in just 72 years. The moneysupply increased along with the debt. In 1959, when the Fed firstbegan reporting M3, it was a mere $288.8 billion. By 2004, it hadreached $9 trillion.8 In only 45 years, M3 had multiplied by over 30times. In 2007, the federal debt also hit $9 trillion; and little of thisborrowed money goes to improve infrastructure or to increase

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employment. Jobs are being out-sourced abroad, while taxpayersstruggle to make the interest payments on the federal debt.

Prices have gone up in tandem. Many people still remember whenice cream cones and comic books were 25 cents each. Today they are$2.50 or more. What was once a 10 cent cup of coffee is now $1.50 to$2.00. A house that was $30,000 in 1970 is now more than $300,000.In 1970, it could have been bought by a single-breadwinner family.For most families today, both parents have to work outside the hometo make the mortgage payments.9 These parabolic price increases re-flect a parabolic increase in the money supply. Where did all this newmoney come from? No gold was added to the asset base of the coun-try, which went off the gold standard in the 1930s. All of this increasecame into existence as accounting-entry bank loans. More specifi-cally, it came from government loans, which never get paid back butjust get rolled over from year to year. Under the plan of Coxey andthe Greenbackers, rather than borrowing from banks that pulled themoney out of an empty hat, Uncle Sam could have pulled the moneyout of his own tall hat and avoided a mushrooming debt.

Roosevelt in the Middle

Coxey was not alone in urging the Greenback cure for theeconomy's ills. Some influential federal officials also thought it wasthe way to reverse the depression. In a congressional address in 1933,Representative Louis McFadden quoted a Hearst newspaper articleby Robert Hemphill, credit manager of the Atlanta Federal Reserve, inwhich Hemphill argued:

We are rapidly approaching a situation where thegovernment must issue additional currency. It will very soon bethe only move remaining. It should have been the first step in therecovery program. Immediately upon a revival of the demandthat the government increase the supply of currency, we shallagain be subjected to a barrage of skillfully designed andcunningly circulated propaganda by means of which a smallgroup of international bankers have been able, for two centuriesto frighten the peoples of the civilized world against issuing theirown good money in sufficient quantities to carry on theirnecessary commerce. By this simple, but amazingly successfuldevice these "money changers" - parasites in a busy world intent oncreating and exchanging wealth - have been able to preserve for their

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private and exclusive right the monopoly of manufacturing an inferiorsubstitute for money which they have hypnotized civilized nationsinto using, because of their pressing need to exchange goods andservices. We shall never recover on credit. Even if it wereobtainable, it is uncertain, unreliable, does not expand inaccordance with demand, and contracts unexpectedly and forcauses unrelated to the needs of commerce and industry. . . . Inour present situation the issue of additional currency is the only wayout.10

Hemphill said the government needed to issue enough new, debt-free currency to replace what had been lost. Congressman WrightPatman went further: he urged the government to take over ownershipand operation of the banks. In an address to Congress on March 13,1933, he asked rhetorically:

Why is it necessary to have Government ownership andoperation of banks? Let us go back to the Constitution of theUnited States and follow it ... . The Constitution of the UnitedStates says that Congress shall coin money and regulate its value.That does not mean . . . that the Congress of the United States,composed of the duly elected representatives of the people, havea right to farm out the great privilege to the banking system,until today a few powerful bankers control the issuance anddistribution of money - something that the Constitution of theUnited States says Congress shall do.11

Flanked on the right by the classical laissez-faire economists whosaid the money supply and the banking scheme should not be tamperedwith at all, and on the left by the radical reformers who said that thepower to create money and perhaps even the banking system itselfshould be taken over by the government, Roosevelt took the middleroad and opted for the Keynesian deficit spending alternative. Heexpanded the money supply, but he did it without unseating the privatebanking cartel.

Instead, Roosevelt tried to regulate the bankers. In 1934, the FederalReserve System was overhauled to provide additional safeguards forthe economy and the money supply. The old Federal Reserve Boardwas dissolved and replaced by a seven-member Board of Governors,appointed by the U.S. President for 14-year terms. The Board wasgiven greatly increased powers, including the power to appoint thepresidents of the 12 Federal Reserve Banks. The Open MarketCommittee was created, with one representative from each Federal

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Reserve Bank. It was empowered to inject new money into theeconomy by using newly-created money to purchase governmentbonds, and to remove money from the economy by selling governmentbonds.12 (More on this in Chapter 19.)

Although the money supply was better protected by these measures,the Fed remained a hierarchical citadel, run from the top down. Todayeven the commercial banks that own the Federal Reserve Banks donot have ordinary voting rights. The system is subject to the control ofa small clique of appointed banking representatives, who operatebehind a curtain of secrecy. The Head of the Fed has usually beenchosen from the private banking sector and has remained aligned withits interests. The country that holds democracy out as an ideal is inthe anomalous position of having an economic system controlled byan autocratic head who is beyond the reach not only of the public butof the Fed's own shareholders.13 The current Fed Chairman, BenBernanke, came from academia rather than the banking establishment,but he has been criticized for being out of touch with the real economy.His chief problem, however, seems to be that his banking-establishmentpredecessors have left him with a hot air balloon that is about to gothe way of the Hindenberg. But more on that later ....

Going for the Gold

In 1933, Roosevelt took a particularly controversial step when hetook the dollar off the gold standard. England's pound sterling hadbeen removed from the gold standard in 1931, prompting foreignersto turn to the United States for gold at a time when Federal ReserveNotes were 40 percent backed by that precious metal. This meantthat for every $2 cashed in for gold, another $3 in loans had to becalled in by the banks. The run on the nation's gold stores danger-ously shrank the money supply by shrinking the dollar's gold back-ing.14 If everyone holding dollars had been allowed to trade them infor gold, no reserves would have been left to back the dollar, and themoney supply could have collapsed completely. To halt that alarm-ing trend, in 1933 Roosevelt pronounced the country officially bank-rupt and declared a national emergency. Then, with a wave of thePresidential fiat, he changed the Federal Reserve Note from a promiseto pay in gold into legal tender itself, backed only by "the full faithand credit of the United States." The price of gold was subsequentlyraised, reducing the value of the dollar so that more goods could be

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sold abroad. But first, all gold coins, gold bullion, and gold certificatesheld by the public were ordered turned over to the U.S. Treasury,under threat of fines and imprisonment. The point of this exercisewas evidently to prevent a windfall to gold owners when the price ofgold went up. Private gold owners were paid $20.67 per ounce inpaper Federal Reserve money for their confiscated gold. Then theprice of gold was raised to $35 per ounce. The result was an immedi-ate 40 percent devaluation of the paper money the public had justreceived for their gold. The Federal Reserve also had to turn in itsgold, but the Fed was paid in gold certificates (paper money redeem-able in gold).

Congressman McFadden was outraged. He argued that privategold stores were not needed to rebuild the national money supply,since the gold backing had just been removed from the dollar. TheFed was still obligated to redeem foreign holdings of Federal ReserveNotes in gold, and raising the price of gold reduced those obligations;but that was the Fed's problem, not the public's.15 He accused theFederal Reserve Board and its foreign manipulators of deliberatelydraining the gold from the U.S. Treasury. "Roosevelt did what theInternational Bankers ordered him to do!", McFadden charged in a1934 address to Congress. "He is preparing to cancel the war debtsby fraud!"

McFadden maintained that the Fed was legally obligated to re-deem its Federal Reserve Notes in gold to the American people, andthat it had defaulted on this obligation by irresponsibly letting its goldreserves be siphoned off by foreigners. The Fed was bankrupt becauseof its own mis-dealings. He told Congress:

There was no national emergency here when Franklin D.Roosevelt took office excepting the bankruptcy of the Fed - abankruptcy which has been going on under cover for severalyears and which has been concealed from the people so that thepeople would continue to permit their bank deposits and theirbank reserves and their gold and the funds of the United StatesTreasury to be impounded in these bankrupt institutions.

Under cover, the predatory International Bankers have beenstealthily transferring the burden of the Fed debts to the people'sTreasury and to the people themselves. They [took] the farmsand the homes of the United States to pay for their thievery!That is the only national emergency that there has been heresince the depression began. . . . Roosevelt divorced the currency

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Web of Debt

of the United States from gold, and the United States currencyis no longer protected by gold. It is therefore sheer dishonesty tosay that the people's gold is needed to protect the currency. . . . Mr.Chairman, I am in favor of compelling the Fed to pay their owndebts. I see no reason why the general public should be forced to paythe gambling debts of the International Bankers.16

Reining in Wall Street

Although McFadden accused Roosevelt of bowing to the interna-tional bankers, FDR was not actually marching to the drummer of hisown moneyed class, much to their chagrin. From his first months inoffice, he implemented tough legislation against the Wall Street loot-ing and corruption that had brought down the stock market and theeconomy. He took aim at the trusts and monopolies that had returnedin force with the laissez-faire government of the Roaring Twenties. By1929, about 1,200 mergers had swallowed up more than 6,000 previ-ously independent companies, leaving only 200 corporations in con-trol of over half of all American industry. FDR reversed this trendwith new legislation, reviving the policies initiated by his cousin Teddy.He also imposed strict regulations on Wall Street. The Glass-SteagallAct was passed, limiting speculation and preventing banks from gam-bling with money entrusted to them. Regular commercial banks wereseparated from investment banks dealing with stocks and bonds, inorder to prevent bankers from creating stock offerings and then un-derwriting or selling the offerings by hyping the stock. Banks had tochoose to be either commercial banks or investment banks. Commer-cial banks were prohibited from underwriting most securities, withthe exception of government-issued bonds. Speculative abuses wereregulated through the Securities Act of 1933 and the Securities Ex-change Act of 1934. The Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC)was formed; information requirements to potential investors were es-tablished; regulations were promulgated for buying securities on mar-gin (or on credit), and for bank lending for the purchase of stocks andbonds; and restrictions were placed on the suspect practice known asthe short sale. (More on this in Chapter 19.)

Needless to say, the Wall Street financiers were not pleased. "Theyare unanimous in their hatred of me," Roosevelt said defiantly, "and Iwelcome their hatred!"17 A clique of big financiers and industrialistswas rumored to be so unhappy with the President that they plotted to

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Chapter 16 - Oiling the Rusted Joints of the Economy

assassinate him. Major General Smedley Butler testified beforeCongress that he had been solicited by Morgan banking interests tolead the plot. He said he was told by a Morgan agent that Wall Streetwas about to cut off credit to the New Deal, and that Roosevelt "haseither got to get more money out of us or he has got to change the methodof financing the government, and we are going to see that he does not changethat method."18

Change the method of financing the government to what?Hemphill had urged the government to issue its own Greenback-stylecurrency, and Patman had proposed nationalizing the banks.Greenback-style funding was actually authorized by the ThomasAmendment, which provided that the President could issue $3 billionin new Greenbacks if the Federal Reserve Banks failed to fund $3 billionin government bonds.19 That authority was never exercised, but thethreat was there. The plot to assassinate Roosevelt failed, but accordingto Smedley, it was only because he had refused to lead it.

As for Congressman McFadden's impeachment action against theFed, he never got a chance to prove his case. His Congressional inves-tigation was terminated by his sudden death in 1936, under suspi-cious circumstances. The month he died, the journal Pelley's Weeklyreported:

Now that this sterling American patriot has made the Passing,it can be revealed that not long after his public utterance againstthe encroaching powers of [the international bankers], it becameknown among his intimates that he had suffered two attacksagainst his life. The first attack came in the form of two revolvershots fired at him from ambush as he was alighting from a cabin front of one of the Capital hotels. Fortunately both shots missedhim, the bullets burying themselves in the structure of the cab.

He became violently ill after partaking of food at a politicalbanquet at Washington. His life was only saved from what wassubsequently announced as poisoning by the presence of aphysician friend at the banquet, who at once procured a stomachpump and subjected the Congressman to emergency treatment.20

McFadden then died mysteriously of "heart-failure sudden-death,"following a bout of "intestinal flue." His petition for Articles of Im-peachment against the Federal Reserve Board for fraud, conspiracy,unlawful conversion and treason was never acted upon. But WrightPatman took up the torch where McFadden had left off ... .

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Chapter 17WRIGHT PATMANEXPOSES THE MONEY MACHINE

Toto jumped . . . and tipped over the screen that stood in a corner.As it fell with a crash they looked that way, and the next moment allof them were filled with wonder. For they saw, standing in just the spotthe screen had hidden, a little old man, with a bald head and a wrinkledface, who seemed to be as much surprised as they were. . . .

"I am Oz, the Great and Terrible," said the little man, in atrembling voice.

- The Wonderful Wizard ofOz,"The Discovery ofOz the Terrible"

If Wright Patman had been a character in The Wizard of Oz,he would probably have been Dorothy's feisty dog Toto, whonipped fearlessly at the Wicked Witch's heels, saved his mistress byleaping boldly across a closing drawbridge, and exposed the man be-hind the curtain pretending to be a Great and Powerful Wizard.Patman spent nearly fifty years barking at the wicked institutions hethought were out to get the farmers and small businessmen of hisTexas constituency. They included big business, chain stores, tax-ex-empt foundations and - most wicked of all - the Federal Reserve Board,whose restrictive monetary policies he felt placed the interests of WallStreet above those of Main Street.1

Patman was first elected to Congress in 1928 and was re-elected24 times. He served as Chairman of the House Banking and CurrencyCommittee from 1963 to 1975 and in Congress until his death in 1976.He was called an "economic Populist." He inspired a major protestmarch on Washington in 1932, the march of unemployed World WarI veterans petitioning for the "Bonus Bill" he wrote. Patman was thefirst to call for the investigation not only of Penn Central (1970) but ofWatergate (1972). One reviewer described him as:

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a cranky eccentric, out of place in the increasingly slick andpolished world of Washington politics. But therein lay hissignificance .... He used his outsider status to force onto thenational agenda issues that few politicians cared or dared toraise.2

In his role as Chairman of the House Banking and Currency Com-mittee, Patman penetrated the official Fedspeak to expose what wasreally going on. After a probing investigation of the Federal Reserve,he charged:

The Open Market Committee of the Federal Reserve System . . .has the power to obtain, and does obtain, the printed money ofthe United States — Federal Reserve Notes — from the Bureau ofEngraving and Printing, and exchanges these printed notes,which of course are not interest bearing, for United Statesgovernment obligations that are interest bearing. After makingthe exchange, the interest bearing obligations are retained bythe 12 Federal Reserve banks and the interest collected annuallyon these government obligations goes into the funds of the 12Federal Reserve banks. . . . These funds are expended by thesystem without an adequate accounting to the Congress.3

The Open Market Committee was the group formed in 1934 totake charge of "open market operations," the Fed's buying and sellingof government securities (the bills, bonds and notes by which thegovernment borrows money). Then as now, the Open MarketCommittee acquired Federal Reserve Notes from the Federal Bureauof Engraving and Printing, essentially for the cost of printing them.The average cost today is about 4 cents per bill.4 In deft card-sharkfashion, these dollar bills are then swapped for an equivalent stack ofnotes labeled Treasury securities. Turning Treasury securities (or debt)into "money" (Federal Reserve Notes) is called "monetizing" the debt.The government owes this money back to the Fed, although the Fedhas advanced nothing but printed paper to earn it. In a revealingtreatise called A Primer on Money, Patman concluded:

The Federal Reserve is a total moneymaking machine. It can issuemoney or checks. And it never has a problem of making itschecks good because it can obtain the $5 and $10 bills necessaryto cover its check simply by asking the Treasury Department'sBureau of Engraving to print them.5

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This statement was confirmed by Marriner Eccles, then Chairmanof the Federal Reserve Board, in testimony before the House Bankingand Currency Committee in 1935. Eccles acknowledged:

In purchasing offerings of Government bonds, the banking systemas a whole creates new money, or bank deposits. When thebanks buy a billion dollars of Government bonds as they areoffered . . . the banks credit the deposit account of the Treasurywith a billion dollars. They debit their Government bond accounta billion dollars; or they actually create, by a bookkeeping entry, abillion dollars.6

Economist John Kenneth Galbraith would later comment, "Theprocess by which banks create money is so simple that the mind isrepelled." The mind is repelled because the process is sleight of handand is completely foreign to what we have been taught. In aphenomenon called "cognitive dissonance," we can read the wordsand still doubt whether we have read them right. To make sure thatwe have, then, here is another credible source —

In 1993, National Geographic Magazine published an article byassistant editor Peter White titled "Do Banks Really Create MoneyOut of Thin Air?" White began by observing that 92 percent of themoney supply consists, not of bills or coins, but of checkbook and othernon-tangible money. To find out where this money comes from, heasked a Federal Reserve official, who said that every day, the FederalReserve Bank of New York buys U.S. government securities from majorbanks and brokerage houses. That's if the Fed wants to expand themoney supply. If it wants to contract the money supply, it sellsgovernment securities. White wrote:

Say today the Fed buys a hundred million dollars in Treasurybills from those big securities dealers, who keep a stock of themto trade with the public. When the Fed pays the dealers, ahundred million dollars will thereby be added to the country'smoney supply, because the dealers will be credited that amountby their banks, which now have that much more on deposit.But where did the Fed get that hundred million dollars? "Wecreated it," a Fed official tells me. He means that anytime thecentral bank writes a check, so to speak, it creates money. "It'smoney that didn't exist before," he says. Is there any limit onthat? "No limit. Only the good judgement and the conscienceof the responsible Federal Reserve people." And where did they

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get this vast authority? "It was delegated to them in the FederalReserve Act of 1913, based on the Constitution, Article I, Section8. 'Congress shall have the power ... to coin money, regulatethe value thereof . . . ."'7

Andrew Jackson would probably have said "vipers and thieves!"He stressed that the Constitution gives Congress the power only tocoin money; and if "coining" money means "creating" money, it givesthat power only to Congress. The Tenth Amendment provides thatpowers not delegated to the United States or forbidden to the Statesare reserved to the States or the people. In 1935, the U.S. SupremeCourt held that "Congress may not abdicate or transfer to others itslegitimate functions." (Schechter Pultry v. U.S., 29 U.S. 495, 55 U.S.837, 842.)

The Real Windfall

After relentless agitation by Patman's Committee, the Fed finallyagreed to rebate most of the interest it received on its governmentbonds to the U.S. Treasury. Congressman Jerry Voorhis, another earlyFed watchdog, said that the agreement was a tacit admission that theFed wasn't entitled to interest. It wasn't entitled to interest because itsown money wasn't being lent.8 Fed apologists today argue that sincethe interest, or most of it, is now rebated to the government, no netadvantage has accrued to the Fed.9 But that argument overlooks a fargreater windfall to the banks that are the Fed's owners and realconstituents. The bonds that have been acquired essentially for freebecome the basis of the Fed's "reserves" - the phantom money that isadvanced many times over by commercial banks in the form of loans.

Virtually all money in circulation today can be traced to governmentdebt that has been "monetized" by the Federal Reserve and the bankingsystem. This money is then multiplied many times over in the form ofbank loans.10 In 2006, M3 (the broadest measure of the money supply)was nearly $10 trillion, and the Treasury securities held by the FederalReserve came to about one-tenth that sum. Thus the money supplyhas expanded by a factor of about 10 for every dollar of federal debtmonetized by the Federal Reserve, and all of this monetary expansionconsists of loans on which the banks have been paid interest.11 It is thisinterest, not the interest paid to the Federal Reserve, that is the realwindfall to the banks - this and the fact that the banks now have amoney-making machine to back them up whenever they get in trouble

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with their "fractional reserve" lending scheme. The Jekyll Island planhad worked beautifully: the bankers succeeded in creating a secretsource of unlimited funds that could be tapped into whenever theywere caught short-handed. And to make sure their scheme remaineda secret, they concealed this money machine in obscure Fedspeak thatmade the whole subject seem dull and incomprehensible to theuninitiated, and was misleading even to people who thought theyunderstood it.

In The Creature from Tekyll Island, Ed Griffin writes that "modernmoney is a grand illusion conjured by the magicians of finance andpolitics." The function of the Federal Reserve, he says, "is to convertdebt into money. It's just that simple." The mechanism may seemcomplicated at first, but "it is simple if one remembers that the processis not intended to be logical but to confuse and deceive." The processby which the Fed converts debt into money begins after thegovernment's bonds are offered to the public at auction. Griffinexplains:

[T]he Fed takes all the government bonds which the public doesnot buy and writes a check to Congress in exchange for them.... There is no money to back up this check. These fiat dollars arecreated on the spot for that purpose. By calling these bonds"reserves," the Fed then uses them as the base for creating 9 additionaldollars for every dollar created for the bonds themselves. The moneycreated for the bonds is spent by the government, whereas themoney created on top of those bonds is the source of all the bankloans made to the nation's businesses and individuals. The resultof this process is the same as creating money on a printing press, butthe illusion is based on an accounting trick rather than a printingtrick.12

The result is the same with this difference: in the minds of mostpeople, printing press money is created by the government. The

accounting trick that generates 99 percent of the U.S. money supply todayis the sleight of hand of private banks.

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The Magical Multiplying Reserves

The shell game devised by the seventeenth century goldsmiths isnow called "fractional reserve" banking. The fraction of a bank'soutstanding loans that must be held in "reserve" is called the "reserverequirement," and it is set by the Fed. The website of the FederalReserve Bank of New York (FRBNY) explains:

Reserve requirements . . . are computed as percentages ofdeposits that banks must hold as vault cash or on deposit at aFederal Reserve Bank. ... As of December 2006, the reserverequirement was 10% on transaction deposits, and there werezero reserves required for time deposits. ... If the reserverequirement is 10%, for example, a bank that receives a $100deposit may lend out $90 of that deposit. If the borrower thenwrites a check to someone who deposits the $90, the bankreceiving that deposit can lend out $81. As the processcontinues, the banking system can expand the initial deposit of$100 into a maximum of $1,000 of money ($100+$90+81+$72.90+ . . . =$1,000).13

It sounds reasonable enough, but let's have a closer look. First,some definitions: a time deposit is a bank deposit that cannot be with-drawn before a date specified at the time of deposit. Transaction de-posit is a term used by the Federal Reserve for "checkable" deposits(deposits on which checks can be drawn) and other accounts that canbe used directly as cash without withdrawal limits or restrictions.Transaction deposits are also called demand deposits: they can be with-drawn on demand at any time without notice. All checking accountsare demand deposits. Some savings accounts require funds to be kepton deposit for a minimum length of time, but most savings accountsalso permit unlimited access to funds.14 As long as enough money iskept in "reserve" to satisfy depositors who come for their money,"transaction deposits" can be lent many times over. The 90 percentthe bank lends is redeposited, and 90 percent of that is relent, in aprocess that repeats about 20 times, until the $100 becomes $1,000.

But wait! These funds belong to the depositors and must remainavailable at all times for their own use. How can the money be availableto the depositor and lent out at the same time? Obviously, it can't.The money is basically counterfeited in the form of loans. The 10percent reserve requirement harkens back to the seventeenth centurygoldsmiths, who found through trial and error that depositors

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collectively would not come for more than about 10 percent of theirmoney at one time. The money could therefore be lent 9 times overwithout anyone being the wiser. Today the scheme gets obscuredbecause many banks are involved, but the collective result is the same:when the banks receive $1 million in deposits, they can "lend" notjust $900,000 (90 percent of $1 million) but $9 million in computer-generated funds. As we'll see shortly, "reserves" are being phasedout, so the multiple is actually higher than that; but to keep it simple,we'll use that figure. Consider this hypothetical case:

You live in a small town with only one bank. You sell your housefor $100,000 and deposit the money into your checking account at thebank. The bank then advances 90 percent of this sum, or $90,000, toMiss White to buy a house from Mr. Black. The bank proceeds tocollect from Miss White both the interest and the principal on thisloan. Assume the prevailing interest rate is 6.25 percent. Interest at6.25 percent on $90,000 over the life of a 30-year mortgage comes to$109,490. Miss White thus winds up owing $199,490 in principal andinterest on the loan - not to you, whose money it allegedly was in thefirst place, but to the bank.' Legally, Miss White has title to the house;but the bank becomes the effective owner until she pays off her mort-gage.

Mr. Black now takes the $90,000 Miss White paid him for his houseand deposits it into his checking account at the town bank. The bankadds $90,000 to its reserve balance at its Federal Reserve bank andadvances 90 percent of this sum, or $81,000, to Mrs. Green, who wantsto buy a house from Mr. Gray. Over 30 years, Mrs. Green owes thebank $81,000 in principal plus $98,541 in interest, or $179,541; andthe bank has become the effective owner of another house until theloan is paid off.

Mr. Gray then deposits Mrs. Green's money into his checking ac-count. The process continues until the bank has "lent" $900,000, onwhich it collects $900,000 in principal and $985,410 in interest, for atotal of $1,885,410. The bank has thus created $900,000 out of thinair and has acquired effective ownership of a string of houses, at leasttemporarily, all from an initial $100,000 deposit; and it is owed $985,410in interest on this loan. The $900,000 principal is extinguished by an

1 In practice, you probably wouldn't keep $100,000 in a checking account thatpaid no interest; you would invest it somewhere. But when the bank makesloans based on its collective checking account deposits, the result is the same: thebank keeps the interest.

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Chapter 17 - Wright Patman Exposes the Money Machine

entry on the credit side of the ledger when the loans are paid off; butthe other half of this conjured $2 million - the interest - remains sol-idly in the coffers of the bank, and if any of the borrowers shoulddefault on their loans, the bank becomes the owner of the mortgagedproperty.

Instead of houses, let's try it with the $100 million in Treasury billsbought by the Fed in a single day in the National Geographic example,using $100 million in book-entry money created out of thin air. At areserve requirement of 10 percent, $100 million can generate $900million in loans. If the interest rate on these loans is 5 percent, the$900 million will return $45 million the first year in interest to thebanks that wrote the loans. At compound interest, then, a $100 million"investment" in money created out of thin air is doubled in about twoyears!

To Audit or Abolish?

The Fed reports that 95 percent of its profits are now returned tothe U.S. Treasury.15 But a review of its balance sheet, which is avail-able on the Internet, shows that it reports as profits only the interestreceived from the federal securities it holds as reserves.16 No mentionis made of the much greater windfall afforded to the banks that arethe Fed's corporate owners, which use the securities as the "reserves"that get multiplied many times over in the form of loans. The FederalReserve maintains that it is now audited every year by PriceWaterhouse and the Government Accounting Office (GAO), an armof Congress; but some functions remain off limits to the GAO, includ-ing its transactions with foreign central banks and its open marketoperations (the operations by which it creates money with accountingentities).17 Thus the Fed's most important - and most highly suspect -functions remain beyond public scrutiny.

Wright Patman proposed cleaning up the books by abolishing theOpen Market Committee and nationalizing the Federal Reserve, re-claiming it as a truly federal agency under the auspices of Congress.The dollars the Fed created would then be government dollars, issueddebt-free without increasing the debt burden of the country. JerryVoorhis also advocated skipping the middleman and letting the gov-ernment issue its own money. But neither proposal was passed byCongress. Rather, Patman was removed as head of the House Bank-ing and Currency Committee, after holding that position for twelve

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years; and Voorhis lost the next California Congressional election toRichard Nixon, after being targeted by an aggressive smear campaignfinanced by the American Bankers' Association.18

The Illusion of Reserves

At one time, a bank's "reserves" consisted of gold bullion, whichwas kept in a vault and was used to redeem paper banknotes pre-sented by depositors. The "fractional reserve" banking scheme con-cealed the fact that there was insufficient gold to redeem all the noteslaying claim to it. Today, Federal Reserve Notes cannot be redeemedfor anything but more paper notes when the old ones wear out; yetthe banks continue to operate on the "fractional reserve" system, lend-ing out many times more money than they actually have on "reserve."

The reserve requirement itself is becoming obsolete. According toa press release issued by the Federal Reserve Board on October 4, 2005,no reserves would be required in 2006 for the first $7.8 million of nettransaction accounts. At a zero percent reserve, there is no limit tothe number of times deposits can be relent. There is really no limit inany case, as the New York Fed acknowledged on its website. Afterexplaining the exercise in which a $100 deposit becomes $1,000 inloan money, it obliquely conceded:

In practice, the connection between reserve requirements andmoney creation is not nearly as strong as the exercise above wouldsuggest. .. . [T]he Federal Reserve operates in a way that permitsbanks to acquire the reserves they need to meet their requirementsfrom the money market, so long as they are willing to pay theprevailing price (the federal funds rate) for borrowed reserves.Consequently, reserve requirements currently play a relativelylimited role in money creation in the United States.

It seems that banks can conjure up as much money as they want,whenever they want. If a bank runs out of reserves, it can just borrowthem from other banks or the Fed, which creates them out of thin airin "open market operations." That is how it seems; and to confirmthat we have the facts straight, we'll turn to that most definitive of allsources, the Federal Reserve itself ....

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Chapter 18A LOOK INSIDETHE FED'S PLAYBOOK

"I guess I should warn you, if I turn out to be particularly clear,you've probably misunderstood what I've said."

- Federal Reserve Chairman Alan Greenspanin a speech to the Economic Club of New York, 1988

"TV 4"odern Money Mechanics" is a revealing Federal Reserve_LV-Lmanual that is now out of print, perhaps because it revealedtoo much; but it is still available on the Internet.1 It was published in1963 by the Chicago Federal Reserve, which as part of the FederalReserve system naturally wrote in Fedspeak, so some concentration isneeded to decipher it; but the effort rewards the diligent with a goldmine of insider information. The booklet begins, "The actual processof money creation takes place primarily in banks." The process ofmoney creation occurs, it says, "when the proceeds of loans made bythe banks are credited to borrowers' accounts." It goes on:

Of course, [banks] do not really pay out loans from the money theyreceive as deposits. If they did this, no additional money wouldbe created. What they do when they make loans is to acceptpromissory notes in exchange for credits to the borrowers'transaction accounts. . . . [T]he deposit credits constitute newadditions to the total deposits of the banking system.

The bank's "loans" are not recycled deposits of other customers;they are just "deposit credits" advanced against the borrower's promiseto repay. The booklet continues, "banks can build up deposits byincreasing loans and investments." They can build up deposits eitherby making loans of accounting-entry funds or by investing newly-created deposits for their own accounts. (More on this arrestingrevelation later.) The Chicago Fed then asks, "If deposit money can becreated so easily, what is to prevent banks from making too much?" Itanswers its own question:

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[A bank] must maintain legally required reserves, in the form ofvault cash and/ or balances at its Federal Reserve Bank, equal toa prescribed percentage of its deposits. . . . [E]ach bank mustmaintain . . . reserve balances at their Reserve Bank and vaultcash which together are equal to its required reserves ....

The implication is that the bank's "reserves" are drawn from itsdepositors' accounts, but a close reading reveals that this is not thecase. The required reserves are made up of whatever vault cash thebank has on hand and something called "reserve balances maintainedat their Reserve Bank." What are these? Under the heading "WhereDo Bank Reserves Come From?", the Chicago Fed states:

Increases or decreases in bank reserves can result from a numberof factors discussed later in this booklet. From the standpoint ofmoney creation, however, the essential point is that the reservesof banks are, for the most part, liabilities of the Federal ReserveBanks, and net changes in them are largely determined by actionsof the Federal Reserve System. . . . One of the major responsibilitiesof the Federal Reserve System is to provide the total amount of reservesconsistent with the monetary needs of the economy at reasonablystable prices.

If the "reserves" had come from the depositors, the Fed would nothave the "responsibility" of providing them "at reasonably stableprices." They would already be in the banks' vaults or on their books.Recall what the New York Fed said on its website: "[T]he Federal Re-serve operates in a way that permits banks to acquire the reservesthey need to meet their requirements from the money market, so longas they are willing to pay the prevailing price (the federal funds rate) forborrowed reserves."

In short, banks don't need to have the money they lend before theymake loans, because the Fed will "provide" the necessary reserves bymaking them available at the federal funds rate. The banks borrowfrom the Fed or other banks at a low interest rate and extend credit totheir customers at a higher rate. Where the sleight of hand comes in isthat the Fed itself creates the reserves it lends out of thin air. (More on thisshortly.)

That is one bit of sleight of hand. Another is that the loan of newly-created money becomes a deposit, which the bank or its fellow bankscan then relend many times over, multiplying the money supply andcharging interest each time. A source that explains this in easier lan-

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guage than the Fed itself is the informative website by William Hummelcited earlier, called "Money: What It Is, How It Works." He writes:

Banks with adequate capital can and do lend without adequatereserves on hand. If a bank has a creditworthy borrower and aprofitable opportunity, it will issue the loan and then borrow therequired reserves in the money market.1

He uses the example of a bank with $100 million in demand de-posits and $10 million in reserves - just enough reserves to meet thereserve ratio of 10 percent (the approximate amount needed to payany depositors who might come for their money). The bank plans toissue new mortgage loans totaling $5 million for a new housing devel-opment. Can it do so before it acquires more reserves? Hummel saysit can. Why? Because the bank is allowed to enter the newly-created loanmoney as a deposit on its books. The bank's assets and liabilities increaseby the same amount, leaving its reserve requirement unaffected. Whenthe borrower spends the money, it is transferred out of the bank intoother banks, so the originating bank has to come up with new moneyto meet its reserve requirement; but it can do this by borrowing themoney from the Fed or some other source in the money market. Mean-while, the banks that got the $5 million now have new deposits againstwhich they too can make new loans. Since they also need to keeponly 10 percent in reserve to back these new deposits, they can lendout $4,500,000, increasing the money supply by that amount; and sothe process continues.3

So let's review: the bank lends money it doesn't have, and thisloan of new money becomes a "deposit," balancing its books. (This iscalled "double-entry bookkeeping.") When the borrower spends themoney, the bank brings its reserves back up to 10 percent by borrowingfrom the Fed or other sources. As for the Fed itself, it can't run out ofreserves because that is what "open market operations" are all about.Like Santa Claus, the Fed can't run out of reserves because it makesthe reserves.

How this is done was explained by the Chicago Fed with the fol-lowing hypothetical case. If it seems hard to follow or makes no sense,don't worry; it is hard to follow and it doesn't make sense, except assleight of hand. The important line is the last one: "These reserves . . .are matched by . . . deposits that did not exist before." The Chicago Fedstates:

How do open market purchases add to bank reserves anddeposits? Suppose the Federal Reserve System, through its

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trading desk at the Federal Reserve Bank of New York, buys$10,000 of Treasury bills from a dealer in U. S. governmentsecurities. In today's world of computerized financial transac-tions, the Federal Reserve Bank pays for the securities with a"telectronic" check drawn on itself. Via its "Fedwire" transfernetwork, the Federal Reserve notifies the dealer's designatedbank (Bank A) that payment for the securities should be creditedto (deposited in) the dealer's account at Bank A. At the sametime, Bank A's reserve account at the Federal Reserve is creditedfor the amount of the securities purchase. The Federal ReserveSystem has added $10,000 of securities to its assets, which it haspaid for, in effect, by creating a liability on itself in the form ofbank reserve balances. These reserves on Bank A's books arematched by $10,000 of the dealer's deposits that did not exist before.

What happens after that was explained in an article by MurrayRothbard titled "Fractional Reserve Banking," using a hypotheticalthat again is a bit easier to follow than the Fed's. In his example, $10million in Treasury bills are bought by the Fed from a securities dealer,who deposits the money in Chase Manhattan Bank. The $10 millionare created with accounting entries, increasing the money supply bythat sum; but this, says Rothbard, is "only the beginning of the infla-tionary, counterfeiting process":

For Chase Manhattan is delighted to get a check on the Fed, andrushes down to deposit it in its own checking account at the Fed,which now increases by $10,000,000. But this checking accountconstitutes the "reserves" of the banks, which have now increasedacross the nation by $10,000,000. But this means that ChaseManhattan can create deposits based on these reserves, and that,as checks and reserves seep out to other banks . . ., each one canadd its inflationary mite, until the banking system as a wholehas increased its demand deposits by $100,000,000, ten timesthe original purchase of assets by the Fed. The banking system isallowed to keep reserves amounting to 10 percent of its deposits, whichmeans that the "money multiplier" - the amount of deposits the bankscan expand on top of reserves - is 10. A purchase of assets of $10million by the Fed has generated very quickly a tenfold,$100,000,000 increase in the money supply of the banking systemas a whole. Interestingly, all economists agree on the mechanics ofthis process even though they of course disagree sharply on themoral or economic evaluation of that process.4

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In order to pull all this off, the Fed has had to alter the meaning ofcertain words. "Reserves" are not what the word implies - moneykept in a safe to pay claimants. Reserves are accounting entries atFederal Reserve Banks that allow commercial banks to make manytimes those sums in loans. In an article titled "Money and Myths,"Carmen Pirritano writes that a "reserve account" is basically a secondset of books kept at the Federal Reserve Bank. Thus in the ChicagoFed's example, the dealer acquired federal securities from the govern-ment and tendered them to the Federal Reserve, which "paid" by cred-iting the dealer's account, causing new money to magically appear asnumbers at the dealer's bank. This new "deposit" was then added tothe bank's "reserve balance" at its local branch of the Federal Reserve.These reserves were not "real" money kept at the commercial bankfor paying depositors. They existed only as a liability on the FederalReserve Bank's books. Pirritano maintains that the reserve accountskept at the Federal Reserve Bank are just a system for keeping track ofhow much money commercial banks create. There is no limit to thismoney expansion, which banks can engage in to whatever extent theycan get customers to take out new loans. He observes:

"The Federal Reserve System Purposes and Functions" statesthat the Federal Reserve requires that all banks (as of 1980) must"hold a certain fraction of their deposits in reserve, either ascash in their vaults or as non-interest-bearing balances at theFederal Reserve." The term "non-interest-bearing balances atthe Federal Reserve" means that "Reserve Accounts" are nothingmore than bookkeeping tallies representing the portion of themember banks' deposit account balances that may be used as abase to extend new money creation credit. Member banks donot physically transfer ("deposit") a percentage of their demanddeposit account balances to their Reserve accounts at theirFederal Reserve Bank branch. ... J believe these "accounts" weredesigned to further the appearance of a gigantic system of "reserves"mandated by the Federal Reserve System to "force" prudent banking.5

Put less charitably, reserve accounts are a smoke and mirrors ac-counting trick concealing the fact that banks create the money theylend out of thin air, borrowing any "reserves" they need from otherbanks or the Fed, which also create the money out of thin air. Dis-turbing enough, but there is more ....

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How Banks Create Their Own Investment Money

The Chicago Fed continues with its example involving Bank A:

If the process ended here, there would be no "multiple"expansion, i.e., deposits and bank reserves would have changedby the same amount. However, banks are required to maintainreserves equal to only a fraction of their deposits. Reserves inexcess of this amount may be used to increase earning assets -loans and investments.

Recall that the deposits in Bank A "did not exist" until the Fedconjured them up, something it did by "creating a liability on itself inthe form of bank reserve balances." At a 10 percent reserve require-ment, 10 percent of these newly-created deposits are kept in "reserve."The other 90 percent are "excess reserves," which "may be used toincrease earning assets," including not only "loans" but "investments"that pay a return to the bank.

The Chicago Fed states that if business is active, the banks withexcess reserves will probably have opportunities to lend these reserves.But if the banks do not have willing borrowers (indeed, even if theydo), they can choose to invest the money. In effect, they are borrowingmoney created by themselves with accounting entries and investing itfor their own accounts. The Chicago Fed states:

Deposit expansion can proceed from investments as well as loans.Suppose that the demand for loans ... is slack. These bankswould then probably purchase securities. . . . [Most] likely, thesebanks would purchase the securities through dealers, paying forthem with checks on themselves or on their reserve accounts. Thesechecks would be deposited in the sellers' banks. . . . [T]he neteffects on the banking system are identical with those resulting fromloan operations.

The net effect when banks make loans is to expand their deposits,so this must also be the net effect when they invest the money for theirown accounts: they expand the level of deposits, or create new money.How much of a bank's allotted "reserve balance" is invested ratherthan lent? Pirritano cites "Federal Reserve Statistical Release (H.8)"detailing the assets and liabilities of domestic banks, which puts theratio of loans to investments at 7 to 3. Thus in the hypothetical givenby Murray Rothbard, in which $10 million was created by the Fedand was fanned into $100 million as the money passed through the

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banking system, the $100 million would have created $70 million inloans to customers and $30 million in investments for the banks.

Banks as Traders

Commercial banks have traditionally invested conservatively ingovernment securities, but that is not true of investment banks. TheGlass-Steagall Act requiring commercial banking and investmentbanking to be conducted in separate institutions was repealed in 1999,following assurances that these banking functions would be separatedby "Chinese walls" within the organizations.' But Chinese walls arepaper thin, and there are significant differences between commercialand investment banks that make them uneasy partners.6 Commercialbanks have traditionally taken in deposits, issued commercial loans,and otherwise served their customers. Investment banks are notallowed to take in deposits or make commercial loans. Rather, theyraise money for their clients by overseeing stock issuance and sales.Their more important business today, however, is something called"proprietary trading." An entry by that name in Wikipedia" definesproprietary trading as "a term used in investment banking to describewhen a bank trades stocks, bonds, options, commodities, or other itemswith its own money as opposed to its customers' money, so as to make aprofit for itself." The entry states:

Although investment banks are usually defined as businesseswhich assist other business in raising money in the capital mar-kets (by selling stocks or bonds), in fact most of the largest invest-ment banks make the majority of their profit from trading activities.

The potential for conflicts of interest was evident in 2007, wheninvestment bank Goldman Sachs made a killing betting its own moneyagainst the subprime mortgage market at the same time that it was

i "Chinese walls" are defined in Wikipedia as "information barriers imple-mented in firms to separate and isolate persons within a firm who make invest-ment decisions from persons within a firm who are privy to undisclosed materialinformation which may influence those decisions ... to safeguard inside infor-mation and ensure there is no improper trading."

ii The reliability of Wikipedia has been questioned, since it is researched byvolunteers, but defenders note that inaccurate information is quickly correctedby other researchers; and it is an accessible online encyclopedia that gives infor-mation not readily found elsewhere.

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selling "structured investment vehicles" laced with subprime debt toits clients.7

The conflicts of interest problem was discussed in a June 2006 articleby Emily Thornton in Business Week Online titled "Inside Wall Street'sCulture of Risk: Investment Banks Are Placing Bigger Bets Than Everand Beating the Odds - At Least for Now." After discussing the newboom in bank trading, Thornton observed that investment bankwizards have so consistently beaten the odds that "[suspicions arerising that bank traders are acting on nonpublic information gleanedfrom their clients." Trading for the banks' own accounts has beencriticized not only for suspected ethical violations but because it exposesthe banks to enormous risks. Thornton writes:

This trading boom, fueled by cheap money, is fundamentallydifferent from the ones of the past. When traders last ruledWall Street, during the mid-'90s, few banks put much of theirown balance sheets at risk; most acted mainly as brokers,arranging trades between clients. Now, virtually all banks aremaking huge bets with their own assets on many more fronts, andusing vast sums of borrowed money to jack up the risk even more.

Where do these "vast sums of borrowed money" come from?Although investment banks are not allowed to take in deposits or makeloans of imaginary money based on "fractional reserves," commercialbanks are. Now that the lines between these two forms of bankinghave become blurred, it is not hard to envision bank traders havingready access to some very favorable loans.Thornton continues:

[M]any investment banks now do more trading than all but thebiggest hedge funds, those lightly regulated investment poolsthat almost brought down the financial system in 1998 whenone of them, Long-Term Capital Management, blew up. What'smore, banks are jumping into the realm of private equity, spendingbillions to buy struggling businesses as far afield as China that theyhope to turn around and sell at a profit.

Equity is ownership interest in a corporation, and the equity marketis the stock market. These banks are not just investing in short-termTreasury bills on which they collect a modest interest, as commercialbanks have traditionally done. They are buying whole businesses withborrowed money, and they are doing it not to develop the productive poten-tial of the business but just to reap a quick profit on resale.

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Web of Debt

Leading the attack in this lucrative new field, says Thornton, is thevery successful investment bank Goldman Sachs, headed until recentlyby Henry Paulson Jr. Paulson left the firm to become U.S. TreasurySecretary in June 2006, but neither Goldman nor its cronies, Thorntonsays, are showing signs of easing up:

With $25 billion of capital under management, Goldman's privateequity arm itself is one of the largest buyout firms in the worldAll of them are ramping up teams of so-called proprietary traderswho play with the banks' own money. . . . Banks are paying up,offering some traders $10 million to $20 million a year.8

The practice of buying whole corporations in order to bleed themof their profits has been given the less charitable name of "vulturecapitalism." Why the term fits was underscored in a January 2006article by Sean Corrigan called "Speculation in the Late Empire." Hewrites:

When the buy-out merchants and private equity partnershipscan borrow what are effectively limitless sums of cheap, tax-advantaged debt with which to buy out corporate shareholders(not all of them willing sellers, remember); when they can thenproceed to ruin the target business' balance sheet in a flash, byordering payment of special dividends and by weighing it downwith junk debt, in order to return their funds at the earliestjuncture; when their pecuniary motives are mollified by so littlepretense of undertaking any genuine entrepreneurialrestructuring with which to enhance economic efficiency; whenthey can rake in an even greater haul of loot by selling the firmsmartly back to the next debt-swollen suckers in line (probablyinto the little man's sagging pension funds via the inevitable,well-hyped IPC™); when they can scatter fees and commissions(and often political "contributions") liberally along the way -then we're clearly well past the point of reason or endorsement.9

Noting the "outrageously skewed" incomes made by bank tradersat the top of the field — including Henry Paulson, who made over $30million at Goldman Sachs the previous year — Corrigan asksrhetorically:

Why train to be a farmer or a pharmacologist, when you canjoin Merrill Lynch and become a millionaire in your mid-20s,

Initial public offering.

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Chapter 18 - A Look Inside the Fed's Playbook

using someone else's "capital" and benefiting from being aninsider in the great Ponzi scheme in which we live?

All major markets are now thought to be subject to the behind-the-scenes maneuverings of big financial players, and thesemanipulations are being done largely with what Corrigan calls"phantom money." A June 2006 article in Barron's noted that thebond market today is dominated by banks and government entities,and that they are not buying the bonds for their interest income. Rather,"The reality is that [they] are only interested in currency manipulation andmarket contrivement."10

To understand what is really going on behind the scenes, we needto understand the tools used by Big Money to manipulate markets. Inthe next chapter, we'll take a look at the investment vehicle known asthe "short sale," which underlies many of those more arcane toolsknown as "derivatives." A massive wave of short selling was blamedfor turning the Roaring Twenties into the Great Depression. The samesort of manipulations are going on today under different names ....

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Chapter 19BEAR RAIDS AND SHORT SALES:DEVOURING CAPITAL MARKETS

"Lions, and tigers, and bears - oh my! Lions, and tigers, andbears!"

- Dorothy lost in the forest, The Wizard ofOz

The "Crash" that initiated the Great Depression wasn't a one-time occurrence. It continued for nearly four years after 1929,stoked by speculators who made huge profits not only on the market'smeteoric rise but as it was plummeting. "Unrestrained financialexploitations have been one of the great causes of our present tragiccondition," Roosevelt complained in 1933. A four-year industry-widebear raid reduced the Dow Jones Industrial Average (a leading stockindex) to only 10 percent of its former value. A bear raid is the practiceof targeting stock for take-down, either for quick profits or for corporatetakeover. Whenever the market decline slowed after the 1929 crash,speculators would step in to sell millions of dollars worth of stock theydid not own but had ostensibly borrowed just for purposes of sale,using the device known as the "short sale." When done on a largeenough scale, short selling can actually force prices down, allowingassets to be picked up very cheaply.

Here is how it works: stock prices are set on the trading floor bytraders (those people you see wildly yelling, waving and signaling toeach other on TV), whose job is to match buyers with sellers. Shortsellers willing to sell at any price are matched with the low-ball buyorders. Since stock prices are set according to supply and demand,when sell orders overwhelm buy orders, the price drops. The shortsellers then buy the stocks back at the lower price and pocket thedifference. Today, speculators have to drop the price only enough to

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trigger the automatic stop loss orders and margin calls1 of the big mutualfunds and hedge funds." A cascade of sell orders follows, and the priceplummets.

The short sale is explained by market analyst Richard Geist usinga simple analogy:

Pretend that you borrowed your neighbor's lawn mower, whichyour neighbor generously says you may keep for a couple of weekswhile he's on vacation. You're thinking of buying a lawn moweranyway so you've been researching the latest sales and have seenyour neighbor's lawn mower on sale for $300, marked downfrom $500. While you're mowing your lawn, a passerby stopsand offers to buy the lawn mower you're using for $450. Yousell him the lawn mower, then go out and buy the same one onsale for $300 and return it to your neighbor when he returns.Only now you've made $150 on the deal.

Applying this analogy to a hypothetical stock trade, Geist writes:

You believe Amazon is overvalued and its price is going to fall.So as a short seller, you borrow Amazon stock which, like thelawn mower, you don't own, from a broker and sell it into themarket. . . .You borrow and sell 100 shares of Amazon at $50per share, yielding a gain, exclusive of commissions, of $5,000.Your research proves correct and a few weeks later Amazon isselling for $35 per share. You then buy 100 shares of Amazonfor $3500 and return the 100 shares to the broker. You thenhave closed your position, and in the meantime you've made$1500.!

i A stop loss order is an order to sell when the price reaches a certain threshold.A margin call is a demand by a broker to a customer trading on margin (trading oncredit or with borrowed funds) to add funds or securities to his margin accountto bring it up to the percentage of the stock price required as a down payment byfederal regulations. Most traders sell rather than pay the additional money.

u A mu tualfund is a company that brings together money from many peopleand invests it. Hedge funds are investment companies that use high-risk tech-niques, such as borrowing money and selling short, in an effort to make extraor-dinary capital gains for their investors.

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The Hazards of Analogies

It sounds harmless enough when you are borrowing your neighbor'slawn mower with his "generous permission." But when short sellerssell stock they don't own, they don't actually get the permission of thereal owners; and selling your neighbor's lawn mower won't affectlawn mower prices at Sears. In the stock market, by contrast, pricesfluctuate from moment to moment according to the number of sharesfor sale. When millions of shares are "sold" without ever leaving thepossession of their real owners, these "virtual" sales can force downthe price, even when there has been no change in the underlying assetto justify the drop. Indeed, this can and often does happen when thenews about the stock is good, because speculators want to take downthe price so they can buy in cheaply. The price is not responding to"free market forces." It is responding to speculators with the collusivebattering power to overwhelm the market with sell orders — ordersthat are actually phony, because the "sellers" don't own the stock.Like fractional reserve lending, in which the same "reserves" are lentmany times over, short selling has been called a fraud, one that dam-ages the real shareholders and the company. Analyst David Knightexplains it like this:

Short selling is a form of counterfeiting.m When a company isfounded, a certain number of shares are created. The entirevalue of that company is represented by that fixed number ofshares. When an investor buys some of those shares and leavesthem registered in his broker's street name, his broker makesthose same shares available for someone else to sell short. Oncesold short, there are two investors owning the same shares of stock.

The price of stock shares are set by market forces, i.e., supplyand demand. When there is a fixed supply of something, theprice adjusts until demand is met. But when supply is not fixed,as when something is counterfeited, supply will exceed demandand the price will fall. Price will continue to fall as long as supplycontinues to expand beyond demand. Furthermore, price declineis not a linear function of supply expansion. At some point, ifsupply continues to expand beyond demand, the "bottom willfall out of the market," and prices will plunge.2

"' Court terfeit: to make a copy of, usually with the intent to defraud; to carry ona deception.

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The lending of shares by a broker who holds them in trust for hiscustomers is comparable to the goldsmiths' lending of gold held intrust for his depositors. The broker's customers may have agreed tolend out their shares in the fine print of their brokerage contracts, butthey are probably not aware of it. They could avoid having their shareslent out by taking physical possession of the stock; but if they leave thestock with the broker (as nearly everyone does), it is in "street name"and can be lent out and "sold" without the real owners' knowledge,although they still believe in the company and have no intention offlooding the market with their shares.

An April 2006 article in Bloomberg Markets highlighted anotherserious problem with short selling. The short seller is actually allowed tovote the shares at shareholder meetings. To avoid having to reveal whatis going on, stock brokers send proxies to the "real" owners as well;but that means there are duplicate proxies floating around. Just asbankers get away with lending the same money over and over becausethey know most people won't come to collect the cash, brokers knowthat many shareholders won't go to the trouble of voting their shares;and when too many proxies do come in for a particular vote, the totalsare just reduced proportionately to "fit." But that means the real votesof real stock owners may be thrown out. Hedge funds are suspectedof engaging in short selling just to vote on particular issues in whichthey are interested, such as hostile corporate takeovers. Since manyshareholders don't send in their proxies, interested short sellers canswing the vote in a direction that is not in the best interests of thosewith a real stake in the corporation.3

Some of the damage caused by short selling was blunted by theSecurities Act of 1933, which imposed an "uptick" rule and forbade"naked" short selling. The uptick rule required a stock's price to behigher than its previous sale price before a short sale could be made,preventing a cascade of short sales when stocks were going down.But hedge funds managed to avoid the rule by trading offshore, wherethey were unregulated. (See Chapter 20.) And in July 2007, the uptickrule was repealed.4 "Naked" short selling is the practice of sellingstocks short without either owning or borrowing them. Like many ofthe regulations put in place during Roosevelt's New Deal, that ruletoo has been seriously eroded ....

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The Nefarious, Ubiquitous Naked Short Sale

According to a November 2005 article in Time Magazine:

[N]aked short selling is illegal, barring certain exceptions for brokerstrying to maintain an orderly market. In naked short selling, youexecute the sale without borrowing the stock. The SEC noted ina report last year the "pervasiveness" of the practice. When notcaught, this kind of selling has no limits and allows a seller to drivedown a stock.5

A May 2004 Dow Jones report confirmed that naked short sellingis "a manipulative practice that can drive a company's stock pricesharply lower."6 The exception that has turned the rule into a sham isa July 2005 SEC ruling allowing the practice by "market makers." Amarket maker is a bank or brokerage that stands ready to buy and sella particular stock on a continuous basis at a publicly quoted price.The catch is that market makers are the brokers who actually do most ofthe buying and selling of stock today. Ninety-five percent of short salesare now done by broker-dealers and market makers.7 Market makingis one of the lucrative pursuits of those ten giant U.S. banks called"money center banks," which currently hold almost half the country'stotal banking assets. (More on this in Chapter 34.)

A story run on FinancialWire in March 2005 underscored the per-vasiveness and perniciousness of naked short selling. A man namedRobert Simpson purchased all of the outstanding stock of a small com-pany called Global Links Corporation, totaling a little over one millionshares. He put all of this stock in his sock drawer, then watched as 60million of the company's shares traded hands over the next two days.Every outstanding share changed hands nearly 60 times in those two days,although they were safely tucked away in his sock drawer. The incidentsubstantiated allegations that a staggering number of "phantom" sharesare being traded around by brokers in naked short sales. Short sellersare expected to "cover" by buying back the stock and returning it tothe pool, but Simpson's 60 million shares were obviously never boughtback, since they were not available for purchase; and the same thingis believed to be going on throughout the market.8

The role of market makers is supposedly to provide liquidity in themarkets, match buyers with sellers, and ensure that there will alwaysbe someone to supply stock to buyers or to take stock off sellers' hands.The exception allowing them to engage in naked short selling is justi-fied as being necessary to allow buyers and sellers to execute their

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orders without having to wait for real counterparties to show up. Butif you want potatoes or shoes and your local store runs out, you haveto wait for delivery. Why is stock investment different?

It has been argued that a highly liquid stock market is essential toensure corporate funding and growth. That might be a good argu-ment if the money actually went to the company, but that is not whereit goes. The issuing company gets the money only when the stock issold at an initial public offering (IPO). The stock exchange is a second-ary market - investors buying from other stockholders, hoping theycan sell the stock for more than they paid for it. Basically, it is gam-bling. Corporations have an easier time raising money through newIPOs if the buyers know they can turn around and sell their stockquickly; but in today's computerized global markets, real buyers shouldshow up quickly enough without letting brokers sell stock they don'tactually have to sell.

Short selling is sometimes justified as being necessary to keep abrake on the "irrational exuberance" that might otherwise drivepopular stocks into dangerous "bubbles." But if that were a necessaryfeature of functioning markets, short selling would also be rampant inthe markets for cars, television sets and computers, which it obviouslyisn't. The reason it isn't is that these goods can't be "hypothecated" orduplicated on a computer screen the way stock shares can. Likefractional reserve lending, short selling is made possible because thebrokers are not dealing with physical things but are simply movingnumbers around on a computer monitor. Any alleged advantages toa company from the liquidity afforded by short selling are offset bythe serious harm this sleight of hand can do to companies targeted fortake-down in bear raids.

The Stockgate Scandal

The destruction that naked short selling can do was exposed in aJuly 2004 Investors Business Daily articled called "Stockgate," whichdetailed a growing scandal involving market makers and their clearingagency the Depository Trust Company (DTC). The DTC is responsiblefor holding securities and for arranging for the receipt, delivery, andmonetary settlement of securities transactions. The DTC is an arm ofthe Depository Trust and Clearing Corporation (DTCC), a privateconglomerate owned collectively by broker-dealers and banks. Thelawsuits called "Stockgate" alleged a coordinated effort by hedge

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funds, broker-deals and market makers to strip small and medium-sized public companies of their value. In comments before theSecurities and Exchange Commission, C. Austin Burrell, a litigationconsultant for the plaintiffs, maintained that "illegal Naked ShortSelling has stripped hundreds of billions, if not trillions, of dollars fromAmerican investors." Over the six-year period before 2004, he said,the practice resulted in over 7,000 public companies being "shortedout of existence." Burrell maintained that as much as $1 trillion to $3trillion may have been lost to naked short selling, and that more than1,200 hedge fund and offshore accounts have been involved in thescandal.

The DTC's role is supposed to be to bring efficiency to the securitiesindustry by retaining custody of some 2 million securities issues,effectively "dematerializing" most of them so that they exist only aselectronic files rather than as countless pieces of paper. Once"dematerialized," the shares can be "re-hypothecated," something theStockgate plaintiffs say is just a fancy term for "counterfeiting." Theyallege that the DTCC has an enormous pecuniary interest in the shortselling scheme, because it gets a fee each time a journal entry is madein the "Stock Borrow Program." According to the court filings, almostone billion dollars annually are received by the DTCC for its StockBorrow Program, in which the DTCC lends out many multiples of theactual certificates outstanding in a stock. Worse, the SEC itselfreportedly has a stake in the deal, since it receives a transaction fee foreach transaction facilitated by these loans of non-existent certificates.The SEC was instituted during the Great Depression specifically toprevent this sort of corrupt practice. The Investors Business Dailyarticle observed:

The largely unregulated DTC has become something of a defactoCzar presiding over the entire U.S. markets system .... And, asthe SEC s July 28 ruling indicates, its monopoly over the electronictrading system appears even to be protected. The DepositoryTrust and Clearing Corp.'s two preferred shareholders are theNew York Stock Exchange and the NASD, a regulatory agencythat also owns the NASDAQ (NDAQ) and the embattledAmerican Stock Exchange! ... In an era when corporategovernance is the primary interest for the SEC and stateregulators, the DTCC is hardly a role model. Its 21 directorsrepresent a virtual litany of conflict.... The scandal has embroiledhundreds of companies and dozens of brokers and marketmakers, in a

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Chapter 19 - Bear Raids and Short Sales

web of international intrigue, manipulative short-selling and cross-border actions and denials.

A web of international intrigue and coordinated manipulation —the image recalls the "spider webbing" described by Hans Schicht.The Stockgate plaintiffs expect to show that the "hypothecation" orcounterfeiting of unregistered shares is a specific violation of theSecurities Act of 1933 barring the "Sale of Unregistered Securities."Restrictions on short selling were put into the Securities Acts of 1933and 1934, according to Burrell, because of first-hand evidence thatthe "sheer scale of the crashes [after 1929] was a direct result of intentionalmanipulation of U.S. markets through abusive short selling." He maintains:

There are numerous cases of a single share being lent ten ormany more times, giving rise to the complaint that the DTCChas been electronically counterfeiting just as was done via printedcertificates before the Crash. . . . Shares could be electronicallycreated/counterfeited/kited without a registration statementbeing filed, and without the underlying company having anyknowledge such shares are being sold or even in existence.9

In a website devoted to the Stockgate scandal called "The FaulkingTruth," Mark Faulk wrote in April 2006 that the lawsuits and repeatedcalls for investigation and reform have made little headway and havebeen denied media attention. The SEC has imposed only minorpenalties for infractions, which are perceived by the defendants asbeing merely a cost of doing business.10 Like with antitrust regulationin the Gilded Age, the fox has evidently gotten inside the SEC henhouse. The big money cartels the agency was designed to control arenow pulling its strings.

Patrick Byrne is president of a company called Overstock.com,which has been an apparent target of naked short selling. In a reveal-ing presentation called "The Darkside of the Looking Glass: The Cor-ruption of Our Capital Markets," he says the SEC has the data onhow much naked short selling is going on, but it refuses to reveal thenumbers, the players or the plays. Why? The information can hardlybe called a matter of national security. The SEC calls it "proprietaryinformation" that would reveal the short sellers' trading strategies ifexposed. Byrne translates this to mean that if the thieves were foundout, they could not keep stealing. Why are the regulators protectingthem? He offers two theories: either they are looking forward to beingthieves themselves when they go back into private practice, or they

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Web of Debt

are afraid that if they blow the whistle, the whole economy will comecrashing down, along with the banks that are arranging the deals.11

Financial Weapons of Mass Destruction?

Short selling is the modern version of the counterfeiting schemeused to bring down the Continental in the 1770s. When a currency issold short, its value is diluted just as it would be if the market wereflooded with paper currency. The short sale is the basis of many ofthose sophisticated trades called "derivatives," which have becomeweapons for destroying competitor businesses by parasitic mergersand takeovers. Billionaire investor Warren Buffett calls derivatives"financial weapons of mass destruction."12 The term fits not onlybecause these speculative bets are very risky for investors but becausebig institutional investors can use them to manipulate markets, causemassive currency devaluations, and force small vulnerable countriesto do their bidding. Derivatives have been used to destroy the value ofthe national currencies of competitor countries, allowing national assetsto be picked up at fire sale prices, just as the assets of the Americanpublic were snatched up by wealthy insiders after the crash of 1929.Defenders of free markets blame the targeted Third World countriesfor being unable to manage their economies, when the fault actuallylies in a monetary scheme that opens their currencies to manipulationby foreign speculators who have access to a flood of "phantom money"borrowed into existence from foreign banks.

To clarify all this, we'll to take another short detour into the shadyworld of "finance capitalism," to shed some light on the obscure topicof derivatives and the hedge funds that largely trade in them.

' The term "Third World" is now an anachronism, since there is no longer a"Second World" (the Soviet bloc). But the term is used here because it has apopularly understood meaning and is still widely used, and because the alterna-tives - "developing world" and "underdeveloped world" - may be misleading.Citizens of ancient Third World civilizations tend to consider their cultures more"developed" than some in the First World.

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Chapter 20

HEDGE FUNDSAND DERIVATIVES:

A HORSE OF ADIFFERENT COLOR

"What kind of a horse is that? I've never seen a horse like thatbefore!"

"He's the Horse of a Different Color you've heard tell about."

- The Guardian of the Gate to Dorothy,The Wizard of Oz

Just as a painted horse is still a horse, so derivatives andthe hedge funds that specialize in them have been called merelya disguise, something designed to look "different enough from the lasttime so no one realizes what is happening." John Train, writing inThe Financial Times, used this colorful analogy:

[I]t is like the floor show in a seedy nightclub. A sequence ofgirls trots on the scene, first a collection of Apaches, then someballerinas, then cowgirls and so forth. Only after a while doesthe bemused spectator realize that, in all cases, they were the

same girls in slightly different costumes [T]he so-called hedge

fund actually was an excuse for a margin account.1

Hedge funds are private funds that pool the assets of wealthy in-vestors, with the aim of making "absolute returns" — making a profitwhether the market goes up or down. To maximize their profits, theytypically use credit borrowed against the fund's assets to "leverage"their investments. Leverage is the use of borrowed funds to increasepurchasing power. The greater the leverage, the greater the possiblegain (or loss). In futures trading, this leverage is called the margin.Leveraging on margin, or by borrowing money, allows investors toplace many more bets than if they had paid the full price.

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In the 1920s, wealthy investors engaged in "pooling" - combiningtheir assets to influence the markets for their collective benefit. Liketrusts and monopolies, pooling was considered to be a form of collu-sive interference with the normal market forces of supply and demand.Hedge funds are the modern-day variants of this scheme. They areusually run in off-shore banking centers such as the Cayman Islandsto avoid regulation. Off-shore funds are exempt from margin require-ments that restrict trading on credit, and from uptick rules that limitshort sales to assets that are rising in price.

Hedge funds were originally set up to "hedge the bets" of inves-tors, insuring against currency or interest rate fluctuations; but theyquickly became instruments for manipulation and control. Many ofthe largest hedge funds are run by former bank or investment bankdealers, who have left with the blessings of their former employers.The banks' investment money is then placed with the hedge funds,which can operate in a more unregulated environment than the bankscan themselves. Hedge funds are now often responsible for over half thedaily trading in the equity markets, due to their huge size and the hugeamounts of capital funding them.2 That gives them an enormousamount of control over what the markets will do. In the fall of 2006,8,282 of the 9,800 hedge funds operating worldwide were registeredin the Cayman Islands, a British Overseas Territory with a populationof 57,000 people. The Cayman Islands Monetary Authority gives eachhedge fund at registration a 100-year exemption from any taxes, shel-ters the fund's activity behind a wall of official secrecy, allows thefund to self-regulate, and prevents other nations from regulating thefunds.3

Derivatives are key investment tools of hedge funds. Derivativesare basically side bets that some underlying investment (a stock,commodity, market, etc.) will go up or down. They are not really"investments," because they don't involve the purchase of an asset.They are outside bets on what the asset will do. All derivatives arevariations on futures trading, and all futures trading is inherentlyspeculation or gambling. The more familiar types of derivatives include"puts" (betting the asset will go down) and "calls" (betting the assetwill go up). Over 90 percent of the derivatives held by banks today,however, are "over-the-counter" derivatives - investment devicesspecially tailored to financial institutions, often having exotic andcomplex features, not traded on standard exchanges. They are notregulated, are hard to trace, and are very hard to understand.4 Some

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critics say they are impossible to understand, because they weredesigned to be so complex and obscure as to mislead investors.5

At one time, tough rules regulated speculation of this sort. TheGlass-Steagall Act passed during the New Deal separated commercialbanking from securities trading; and the Commodities Futures Trad-ing Commission (CFTC) was created in 1974 to regulate commodityfutures and option markets and to protect market participants fromprice manipulation, abusive sales practices, and fraud. But again thespeculators have managed to get around the rules. Derivative tradersclaim they are not dealing in "securities" or "futures" because noth-ing is being traded; and just to make sure, they induced Congress toempower the head of the CFTC to grant waivers to that effect, andthey set up offshore hedge funds that remained small, unregisteredand unregulated. They also had the Glass-Steagall Act repealed.

A Bubble on a Ponzi Scheme

Executive Intelligence Review (EIR), The New Federalist and TheAmerican Almanac are publications associated with LyndonLaRouche, a political figure who is personally controversial but whoseresearch staff was described by a former senior staffer of the NationalSecurity Council as "one of the best private intelligence services in theworld."6 Their writings on the derivatives crisis are quite colorful andreadable. In a 1998 interview, John Hoefle, the banking columnist forEIR, clarified the derivatives phenomenon like this:

During the 1980s, you had the creation of a huge financial bubble.. . . [Y]ou could look at that as fleas who set up a trading empireon a dog. . . . They start pumping more and more blood out ofthe dog to support their trading, and then at a certain point, theamount of blood that they're trading exceeds what they canpump from the dog, without killing the dog. The dog begins toget very sick. So being clever little critters, what they do, is theyswitch to trading in blood futures. And since there's noconnection - they break the connection between the bloodavailable and the amount you can trade, then you can have areal explosion of trading, and that's what the derivatives marketrepresents. And so now you've had this explosion of trading inblood futures which is going right up to the point that now thedog is on the verge of dying. And that's essentially what thederivatives market is. It's the last gasp of a financial bubble.7

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What has broken the connection between "the blood available andthe amount you can trade" is that derivatives are not assets. They arejust bets on what the asset will do, and the bet can be placed with verylittle "real" money down. Most of the money is borrowed from banksthat create it on a computer screen as it is lent. The connection withreality has been severed so completely that the market for over-the-counter derivatives has now reached many times the money supply ofthe world. Since these private bets are unreported and unregulated,nobody knows exactly how much money is riding on them. How-ever, the Bank for International Settlements (BIS) reported that in thefirst half of 2006, the "notional value" of derivative trades had soaredto a record $370 trillion; and by December 2007, the figure was up toa breathtaking $682 trillion.8.

The notional value of a derivative is a hypothetical number describedas "the number of units of an asset underlying the contract, multi-plied by the spot price of the asset." Synonyms for "notional" include"fanciful, not based on fact, dubious, imaginary." Just how fancifulthese values are is evident from the numbers: $682 trillion is over 50times the $13 trillion gross domestic product (GDP) of the entire U.S.economy. In 2006, the total GDP of the world was only $66 trillion —one-tenth the "notional"value of derivative trade in 2007. In a Sep-tember 2006 article in MarketWatch, Thomas Kostigen wrote:

[l]t's worth wondering how so much extra value can be squeezed outof instruments that are essentially fake.... Wall Street manufacturesthese products and trades them in a rather shadowy way thatkeeps the average investor in the dark. You cannot exactly lookup the price of an equity derivative in your daily newspaper'sstock table.... [I]t wouldn't take all that much to create a dominoeffect of market mishap. And there is no net. The SecuritiesInvestor Protection Corporation, which insures brokerageaccounts in the event of a brokerage-firm failure, recentlyannounced its reserves. It has about $1.38 billion. That maysound like a lot. Compared with half a quadrillion, it's apittance. Scary but true.9

How are these astronomical sums even possible? The answer,again, is that derivatives are just bets, and gamblers can bet any amountthey want. Gary Novak is a scientist with a website devoted to simpli-fying complex issues. He writes, "It's like two persons flipping a coinfor a trillion dollars, and afterwards someone owes a trillion dollars

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which never existed."9 He calls it "funny money." Like the Missis-sippi Bubble, the derivatives bubble is built on something that doesn'treally exist; and when the losers cannot afford to pay up on theirfutures bets, the scheme must collapse. Either that, or the taxpayerswill be saddled with the bill for the largest bailout in history.

In a report presented at the request of the House Committee onBanking, Finance and Urban Affairs in 1994, Christopher White usedsome other vivid imagery for the derivatives affliction. He wrote:

The derivatives market ... is the greatest bubble in history. Itdwarfs the Mississippi Bubble in France and the South Sea Islandbubble in England. This bubble, like a cancer, has penetrated andtaken over the entirety of our banking and credit system; there is nomajor commercial bank, investment bank, mutual fund, etc. thatis not dependent on derivatives for its existence. Thesederivatives suck the life's blood out of our economy. Our farms,our factories, our nation's infrastructure, our living standards arebeing sucked dry to pay off interest payments, dividend yields as wellas other earnings on the bubble.11

How speculation in derivatives draws much-needed capital awayfrom domestic productivity was explained by White with anotheranalogy:

It would be like going to the horse races to bet, not on the race,but on the size of the pot. Who would care about what's involvedwith getting the runners to the starting gate?

Since the gamblers don't care who wins, they aren't interested infeeding the horses or hiring stable hands. They are only interested inmoney making money. Today more money can be had at less risk byspeculation in derivatives than by investing in the growth of a business,and this is particularly true if you are a very big bank with the abilityto influence the way the bet goes. The Office of the Comptroller of theCurrency reported that in mid-2006, there were close to 9,000commercial and savings banks in the United States; yet 97 percent ofU.S. bank-held derivatives were concentrated in the hands of just fivebanks. Topping the list were JPMorgan Chase and Citibank, the citadelsof the Morgan and Rockefeller empires.12

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Derivative Wars

The seismic power of the new derivative weapons was demon-strated in 1992, when George Soros and his giant hedge fund Quan-tum Group, backed by Citibank and other powerful institutional specu-lators, used derivatives to collapse the currencies of Great Britain andItaly in a single day. The European Monetary System was taken downwith them. According to White:

They showed that day that the speculative cancer that had beenunleashed had grown beyond the point that monetary authoritiescould control. Farmers who have been ruined by short-sellerson commodities markets know what this is all about: selling whatyou do not own in order to buy it back later for less. . . . These areinstruments of financial warfare, deployed against nations and thepopulations in much the same way the commodity market short-sellerhas been deployed to bankrupt the farmer.13

More than $60 billion were poured into the 1992 onslaught againstEuropean currencies, and this money was largely borrowed from giantinternational banks. A 1997 report by an IMF research team confirmedthat to fuel a speculative attack, hedge funds needed the backing ofthe banks, since few private parties were willing or able to make thosevery large and very risky investments.14 By 1997, hedge funds had anestimated $100 billion in assets, which could be leveraged five to tentimes, giving them up to a trillion dollars in battering power. An articlein The Economist observed:

That may sound a lot, particularly if hedge funds leverage theircapital. But consider that the assets of rich-country institutionalinvestors exceed $20 trillion. Hedge funds are bit players comparedwith banks, mutual or pension funds, many of which engage in exactlythe same types of speculation.15

George Soros raised this defense himself, when his giant hedgefund was blamed for the Asian currency crisis of 1997-98. In TheCrisis of Global Capitalism, he wrote:

There has . . . been much discussion of the role of hedge funds indestabilizing the financial system ... I believe the discussion ismisdirected. Hedge funds are not the only ones to use leverage;

the proprietary trading desks of commercial and investment banksare the main players in derivatives and swaps. . . . [Hjedge funds asa group did not equal in size the proprietary trading desks of banksand brokers .... 16

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Between 1996 and 2005, the number of hedge funds more thandoubled, and their capital grew from $200 billion to over $1 trillion.Between 1987 and 2005, derivatives betting on international interestrate and currencies grew from $865 billion to $201.4 trillion. Thisexplosion in derivative bets was matched on the downside by anexplosion in risk. When a mega-corporation or a debtor nation goesbankrupt, the banks that are derivatively hedging its bets can gobankrupt too. When Russia defaulted on its debts, LTCM wentbankrupt and threatened to take the banks with interlockinginvestments down with it. A November 2005 Bloomberg reportwarned:

The $12.4 trillion market for credit derivatives is dominated bytoo few banks, making it vulnerable to a crisis if one of themfails to pay on contracts that insure creditors from companiesdefaulting .... JPMorgan Chase & Co., Deutsche Bank AG,Goldman Sachs Group Inc. and Morgan Stanley are the mostfrequent traders in a market where the top 10 firms account formore than two-thirds of the debt-insurance contracts boughtand sold.17

John Hoefle warns that the dog has already run out of blood. Hewrites:

We are on the verge of the biggest financial blowout in centuries,bigger than the Great Depression, bigger than the South Seabubble, bigger than the Tulip bubble. The derivatives bubble, inwhich Citicorp, Morgan, and the other big New York banks areunsalvageably overexposed, is about to pop. The currencywarfare operations of the Fed, George Soros, and Citicorp havegenerated billions of dollars in profits, but have destroyed thefinancial system in the process. The fleas have killed the dog, andthus they have killed themselves.18

How Can a Bank Go Bankrupt?

But, you may ask, how can these banks go bankrupt? Don't theyhave the power to create money out of thin air? Why doesn't a bankwith bad loans on its books just write them off and carry on?

British economist Michael Rowbotham explains that under theaccountancy rules of commercial banks, all banks are obliged to balancetheir books, making their assets equal their liabilities. They can create

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all the money they can find borrowers for, but if the money isn't paidback, the banks have to record a loss; and when they cancel or writeoff debt, their total assets fall. To balance their books by making theirassets equal their liabilities, they have to take the money either fromprofits or from funds invested by the bank's owners; and if the loss ismore than the bank or its owners can profitably sustain, the bank willhave to close its doors.19 Note that the bank's owners are not thosemulti-million dollar CEOs who control the company and paythemselves generous bonuses when they generate big new loans andfees, or the interlocking directorships that shower financial favors ontheir cronies. The owners are the shareholders. Like with the recentexploitation of the bankrupt energy giant Enron, the profiteers plungingahead with reckless risk-taking are the management, who can taketheir winnings and walk away, leaving the shareholders and theemployees holding the bag.

Individual profiteering aside, however, banks are clearly taking arisk when they extend credit. Bankers will therefore argue that theydeserve the interest they get on these loans, even if they did conjurethe money out of thin air. Somebody has to create the national moneysupply. Why not the bankers?

One problem with the current system is that the government itselfhas been seduced into borrowing money created out of nothing andpaying interest on it, when the government could have created thefunds itself, debt- and interest-free. In the case of government loans,the banks take virtually no risk, since the government is always goodfor the interest; and the taxpayers get saddled with a crippling debtthat could have been avoided.

Another problem with the fractional reserve system is simply inthe math. Since all money except coins comes into existence as a debtto private banks, and the banks create only the principal when theymake loans, there is never enough money in the economy to repayprincipal plus interest on the nation's collective debt. When the moneysupply was tethered to gold, this problem was resolved throughperiodic waves of depression and default that wiped the slate cleanand started the cycle all over again. Although it was a brutal systemfor the farmers and laborers who got wiped out, and it allowed afinancier class to get progressively richer while the actual producersgot poorer, it did succeed in lending a certain stability to the moneysupply. Today, however, the Fed has taken on the task of preventingdepressions, something it does by pumping more and more credit-

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Web of Debt

money into the economy by funding a massive federal debt that noone ever expects to have to repay; and all this credit-money is advancedat interest. At some point, the interest bill alone must exceed thetaxpayers' ability to pay it; and according to U.S. Comptroller GeneralDavid Walker, that day of reckoning is only a few years away.20 Wehave reached the end of the line on the debt-money train and willhave to consider some sort of paradigm shift if the economy is tosurvive.

A third problem with the current system is that giant interna-tional banks are now major players in global markets, not just as lend-ers but as investors. Banks have a grossly unfair advantage in thisgame, because they have access to so much money that they can influ-ence the outcome of their bets. If you the individual investor sell astock short, your modest investment won't do much to influence thestock's price; but a mega-bank and its affiliates can short so muchstock that the value plunges. If the bank is one of those lucky institu-tions considered "too big to fail," it can rest easy even if its bet does gowrong, since the FDIC and the taxpayers will bail it out from its folly.In the case of international loans, the International Monetary Fundwill bail it out. In Sean Corrigan's descriptive prose:

[W]hen financiers and traders get paid enough to make Croesuskvetch for taking wholly asymmetric risks with phantom capital- risks underwritten by government institutions like the Fed andthe FDIC .... - this is not exactly a fair card game.21

For every winner in this game played with phantom capital, thereis a loser; and the biggest losers are those Third World countries thathave been seduced into opening their financial markets to currencymanipulation, allowing them to be targeted in powerful speculativeraids that can and have destroyed their currencies and their econo-mies. Lincoln's economist Henry Carey said that the twin weaponsused by the British empire to colonize the world were the "gold stan-dard" and "free trade." The gold standard has now become thepetrodollar standard, as we'll see in the next chapter; but the game isstill basically the same: crack open foreign markets in the name of"free trade," take down the local currency, and put the nation's assetson the block at fire sale prices. The first step in this process is to inducethe country to accept foreign loans and investment. The loan moneygets dissipated but the loans must be repaid. In the poignant words ofBrazilian President Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva:

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Chapter 20 - Hedge Funds and Derivatives

The Third World War has already started. . . . The war is tearingdown Brazil, Latin America, and practically all the Third World.Instead of soldiers dying, there are children. It is a war over theThird World debt, one which has as its main weapon, interest, aweapon more deadly than the atom bomb, more shattering thana laser beam.22

The Third World is fighting back, in a war it thinks was started bythe First World; but the governments of the First World are actuallyvictims as well. As Dr. Quigley revealed, the secret of the internationalbankers' success is that they have managed to control national moneysystems while letting them appear to be controlled by governments.23The U.S. government itself is the puppet of invisible puppeteers ....

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Section III

ENSLAVED BY DEBT:THE BANKERS' NET SPREADSOVER THE GLOBE

"If I cannot harness you," said the Witch to the Lion, speakingthrough the bars of the gate, "I can starve you. You shall have nothingto eat until you do as I wish."

- The Wonderful Wizard ofOz,"The Search for the Wicked Witch"

Chapter 21GOODBYE YELLOW BRICK ROAD:FROM GOLD RESERVESTO PETRODOLLARS

"Once," began the leader, "we were a free people, living happilyin the great forest, flying from tree to tree, eating nuts and fruit, anddoing just as we pleased without calling anybody master. . . . [Now]we are three times the slaves of the owner of the Golden Cap, whosoeverhe may be."

- The Wonderful Wizard ofOz,"The Winged Monkeys "

The Golden Cap suggested the gold that was usedby international financiers to colonize indigenous populationsin the nineteenth century. The gold standard was a necessary step ingiving the bankers' "fractional reserve" lending scheme legitimacy,but the ruse could not be sustained indefinitely. Eleazar Lord put hisfinger on the problem in the 1860s. When gold left the country to payforeign debts, the multiples of banknotes ostensibly "backed" by ithad to be withdrawn from circulation as well. The result was moneycontraction and depression. "The currency for the time is annihi-lated," said Lord, "prices fall, business is suspended, debts remainunpaid, panic and distress ensue, men in active business fail, bank-ruptcy, ruin, and disgrace reign." Roosevelt was faced with this sortof implosion of the money supply in the Great Depression, forcinghim to take the dollar off the gold standard to keep the economy fromcollapsing. In 1971, President Nixon had to do the same thing inter-nationally, when foreign creditors threatened to exhaust U.S. goldreserves by cashing in their paper dollars for gold.

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Between those two paradigm-changing events came John F.Kennedy, who evidently had his own ideas about free trade, the ThirdWorld, and the Wall Street debt game ....

Kennedy's Last Stand

In Battling Wall Street: The Kennedy Presidency, Donald Gibsoncontends that Kennedy was the last President to take a real standagainst the entrenched Wall Street business interests. Kennedy was aHamiltonian, who opposed the forces of "free trade" and felt thatindustry should be harnessed to serve the Commonwealth. He feltstrongly that the country should maintain its independence bydeveloping cheap sources of energy. The stand pitted him against theoil/banking cartel, which was bent on raising oil prices to prohibitivelevels in order to entangle the world in debt.

Kennedy has been accused of "reckless militarism" and "obsessiveanti-communism," but Gibson says his plan for neutralizing the appealof Communism was more benign: he would have replaced colonialistand imperialist economic policies with a development program thatincluded low-interest loans, foreign aid, nation-to-nation cooperation,and some measure of government planning. The Wall Street bankersevidently had other ideas. Gibson quotes George Moore, president ofFirst National City Bank (now Citibank), who said:

With the dollar leading international currency and the UnitedStates the world's largest exporter and importer of goods, servicesand capital, it is only natural that U.S. banks should girdthemselves to play the same relative role in international financethat the great British financial institutions played in thenineteenth century.

The great British financial institutions played the role of subjugatingunderdeveloped countries to the position of backward exporters ofraw materials. It was the sort of exploitation Kennedy's foreign policyaimed to eliminate. He crossed the banking community and theInternational Monetary Fund when he continued to give foreign aidto Latin American countries that had failed to adopt the bankers'policies. Gibson writes:

Kennedy's support for economic development and Third Worldnationalism and his tolerance for government economic planning,even when it involved expropriation of property owned byinterests in the U.S., all led to conflicts between Kennedy andelites within both the U.S. and foreign nations.1204

There is also evidence that Kennedy crossed the bankers by seekingto revive a silver-backed currency that would be independent of thebanks and their privately-owned Federal Reserve. The matter remainsin doubt, since his Presidency came to an untimely end before he couldplay his hand;2 but he did authorize the Secretary of the Treasury toissue U.S. Treasury silver certificates, and he was the last President toissue freely-circulating United States Notes (Greenbacks). When VicePresident Lyndon Johnson stepped into the Presidential shoes, his firstofficial acts included replacing government-issued United States Noteswith Federal Reserve Notes, and declaring that Federal Reserve Notescould no longer be redeemed in silver. New Federal Reserve Noteswere released that omitted the former promise to pay in "lawfulmoney." In 1968, Johnson issued a proclamation that even FederalReserve Silver Certificates could not be redeemed in silver. The onedollar bill, which until then had been a silver certificate, was made aFederal Reserve note, not redeemable in any form of hard currency.3United States Notes in $100 denominations were printed in 1966 tosatisfy the 1878 Greenback Law requiring their issuance, but mostwere kept in a separate room at the Treasury and were not circulated.In the 1990s, the Greenback Law was revoked altogether, eliminatingeven that token issuance.

Barbarians Inside the Gates

Although the puppeteers behind Kennedy's assassination havenever been officially exposed, some investigators have concluded thathe was another victim of the invisible hand of the internationalcorporate/banking/military cartel.4 President Eisenhower warnedin his 1961 Farewell Address of the encroaching powers of the military-industrial complex. To that mix Gibson would add the oil cartel andthe Morgan-Rockefeller banking sector, which were closely aligned.Kennedy took a bold stand against them all.

How he stood up to the CIA and the military was revealed byJames Bamford in a book called Body of Secrets, which was featuredby ABC News in November 2001, two months after the World TradeCenter disaster. The book discussed Kennedy's threat to abolish theCIA's right to conduct covert operations, after he was presented withsecret military plans code-named "Operation Northwoods" in 1962.Drafted by America's top military leaders, these bizarre plans includedproposals to kill innocent people and commit acts of terrorism in U.S.

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cities, in order to create public support for a war against Cuba. Actionscontemplated included hijacking planes, assassinating Cuban emigres,sinking boats of Cuban refugees on the high seas, blowing up a U.S.ship, orchestrating violent terrorism in U.S. cities, and causing U.S.military casualties, all for the purpose of tricking the American publicand the international community into supporting a war to oust Cuba'sthen-new Communist leader Fidel Castro. The proposal stated, "Wecould blow up a U.S. ship in Guantanamo Bay and blame Cuba," andthat "casualty lists in U.S. newspapers would cause a helpful wave ofnational indignation."5

Needless to say, Kennedy was shocked and flatly vetoed the plans.The head of the Joint Chiefs of Staff was promptly transferred to an-other job. The country's youngest President was assassinated the fol-lowing year. Whether or not Operation Northwoods played a role, itwas further evidence of an "invisible government" acting behind thescenes. His disturbing murder was a wake-up call for a whole gen-eration of activists. Things in the Emerald City were not as green asthey seemed. The Witch and her minions had gotten inside the gates.

Bretton Woods: The Rise and Fallof an International Gold Standard

Lyndon Johnson was followed in the White House by RichardNixon, the candidate Kennedy defeated in 1960. In 1971, PresidentNixon took the dollar off the gold standard internationally, leavingcurrencies to "float" in the market so that they had to compete witheach other as if they were commodities. Currency markets were turnedinto giant casinos that could be manipulated by powerful hedge funds,multinational banks and other currency speculators. William Engdahl,author of A Century of War, writes:

In this new phase, control over monetary policy was, in effect,privatized, with large international banks such as Citibank,Chase Manhattan or Barclays Bank assuming the role that centralbanks had in a gold system, but entirely without gold. "Marketforces" now could determine the dollar. And they did with avengeance.6

It was not the first time floating exchange rates had been tried.An earlier experiment had ended in disaster, when the British poundand the U.S. dollar had both been taken off the gold standard in the1930s. The result was a series of competitive devaluations that only

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served to make the global depression worse. The Bretton WoodsAccords were entered into at the end of World War II to correct thisproblem. Foreign exchange markets were stabilized with aninternational gold standard, in which each country fixed its currency'sglobal price against the price of gold. Currencies were allowed tofluctuate from this "peg" only within a very narrow band of plus orminus one percent. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) was setup to establish exchange rates, and the International Bank forReconstruction and Development (the World Bank) was founded toprovide credit to war-ravaged and Third World countries.7

The principal architects of the Bretton Woods Accords were Britisheconomist John Maynard Keynes and Assistant U.S. Treasury SecretaryHarry Dexter White. Keynes envisioned an international central bankthat had the power to create its own reserves by issuing its owncurrency, which he called the "bancor." But the United States hadjust become the world's only financial superpower and was not readyfor that step in 1944. The IMF system was formulated mainly by White,and it reflected the power of the American dollar. The gold standardhad failed earlier because Great Britain and the United States, theglobal bankers, had run out of gold. Under the White Plan, gold wouldbe backed by U.S. dollars, which were considered "as good as gold"because the United States had agreed to maintain their convertibilityinto gold at $35 per ounce. As long as people had faith in the dollar,there was little fear of running out of gold, because gold would notactually be used. Hans Schicht notes that the Bretton Woods Accordswere convened by the "master spider" David Rockefeller.8 They playedright into the hands of the global bankers, who needed the ostensiblebacking of gold to justify a massive expansion of U.S. dollar debt aroundthe world.

The Bretton Woods gold standard worked for a while, but it wasmainly because few countries actually converted their dollars into gold.Trade balances were usually cleared in U.S. dollars, due to their uniquestrength after World War II. Things fell apart, however, when foreigninvestors began to doubt the solvency of the United States. By 1965,the Vietnam War had driven the country heavily into debt. FrenchPresident Charles DeGaulle, seeing that the United States was spendingfar more than it had in gold reserves, cashed in 300 million of France'sU.S. dollars for the gold supposedly backing them. The result was toseriously deplete U.S. gold reserves. In 1969, the IMF attempted tosupplement this shortage by creating "Special Drawing Rights" —Greenback-style credits drawn on the IMF. But it was only a stopgapmeasure. In 1971, the British followed the French and tried to cash in

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their gold-backed U.S. dollars for gold, after Great Britain incurredthe largest monthly trade deficit in its history and was turned downby the IMF for a $300 billion loan. The sum sought was fully one-thirdthe gold reserves of the United States. The problem might have beenalleviated in the short term by raising the price of gold, but that wasnot the agenda that prevailed. The gold price was kept at $35 perounce, forcing President Nixon to renege on the gold deal and closethe "gold window" permanently. To his credit, Nixon did not takethis step until he was forced into it, although it had been urged byeconomist Milton Friedman in 1968.9

The result of taking the dollar off the gold standard was to finallytake the brakes off the printing presses. Fiat dollars could now begenerated and circulated to whatever extent the world would takethem. The Witches of Wall Street proceeded to build a worldwidefinancial empire based on a "fractional reserve" banking system thatused bank-created paper dollars in place of the time-honored gold.Dollars became the reserve currency for a global net of debt to aninternational banking cartel. It all worked out so well for the bankersthat skeptical commentators suspected it had been planned that way.Professor Antal Fekete wrote in an article in the May 2005 Asia Timesthat the removal of the dollar from the gold standard was "the biggestact of bad faith in history." He charged:

It is disingenuous to say that in 1971 the US made the dollar"freely floating." What the US did was nothing less thanthrowing away the yardstick measuring value. It is trulyunbelievable that in our scientific day and age when the materialand therapeutic well-being of billions of people depends on theincreasing accuracy of measurement in physics and chemistry,dismal monetary science has been allowed to push the worldinto the Dark Ages by abolishing the possibility of accuratemeasurement of value. We no longer have a reliable yardstickto measure value. There was no open debate of the wisdom, orthe lack of it, to run the economy without such a yardstick.10

Whether unpegging the dollar from gold was a deliberate act ofbad faith might be debated, but the fact remains that gold wasinadequate as a global yardstick for measuring value. The price ofgold fluctuated widely, and it was subject to manipulation byspeculators. Gold also failed as a global reserve currency, becausethere was not enough gold available to do the job. If one country hadan outstanding balance of payments because it had not exportedenough goods to match its imports, that imbalance was corrected by

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transferring reserves of gold between countries; and to come up withthe gold, the debtor country would cash in its U.S. dollars for themetal, draining U.S. gold reserves. It was inevitable that the U.S.government (the global banker) would eventually run out of gold.Some proposals for pegging currency exchange rates that would retainthe benefits of the gold standard without its shortcomings are exploredin Chapter 46.

The International Currency Casino

The gold standard was flawed, but the system of "floating"exchange rates that replaced it was much worse, particularly for ThirdWorld countries. Currencies were now valued merely by their relativeexchange rates in the "free" market. Foreign exchange markets becamegiant casinos, in which the investors were just betting on the relativepositions of different currencies. Smaller countries were left at themercy of the major players - whether other countries, multinationalcorporations or multinational banks - which could radically devaluenational currencies just by selling them short on the internationalmarket in large quantities. These currency manipulations could be sodevastating that they could be used to strong-arm concessions fromtarget economies. That happened, for example, during the Asian Crisisof 1997-98, when they were used to "encourage" Thailand, Malaysia,Korea and Japan to come into conformance with World TradeOrganization rules and regulations.11 (More on this in Chapter 26.)

The foreign exchange market became so unstable that crises couldresult just from rumors of economic news and changes in perception.Commercial risks from sudden changes in the value of foreign curren-cies are now considered greater even than political or market risks forconducting foreign trade.12 Huge derivative markets have developedto provide hedges to counter these risks. The hedgers typically placebets both ways, in order to be covered whichever way the marketgoes. But derivatives themselves can be very risky and expensive, andthey can further compound market instability.

The system of floating exchange rates was the same system thathad been tried briefly in the 1930s and had proven disastrous; butthere seemed no viable alternative after the dollar went off the goldstandard, so most countries agreed to it. Nations that resisted couldusually be coerced into accepting the system as a condition of debtrelief; and many nations needed debt relief, after the price of oilsuddenly quadrupled in 1974. That highly suspicious rise occurred

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soon after an oil deal was engineered by U.S. interests with the royalfamily of Saudia Arabia, the largest oil producer in OPEC (theOrganization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries). The deal wasevidently brokered by U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger. Itinvolved an agreement by OPEC to sell oil only for dollars in returnfor a secret U.S. agreement to arm Saudi Arabia and keep the Houseof Saud in power. According to John Perkins in his eye-opening bookConfessions of an Economic Hit Man, the arrangement basicallyamounted to protection money, insuring that the House of Saud wouldnot go the way of Iran's Prime Minister Mossadegh, who wasoverthrown by a CIA-engineered coup in 1954.13

The U.S. dollar, which had formerly been backed by gold, wasnow "backed" by oil. Every country had to acquire Federal ReserveNotes to purchase this essential commodity. Oil-importing countriesaround the world suddenly had to export goods to get the dollars topay their expensive new oil import bills, diverting their productivecapacity away from feeding and clothing their own people. Coun-tries that had a "negative trade balance" because they failed to exportmore goods than they imported were advised by the World Bank andthe IMF to unpeg their currencies from the dollar and let them "float"in the currency market. The theory was that an "overvalued" cur-rency would then become devalued naturally until it found its "true"level. Devaluation would make exports cheaper and imports moreexpensive, allowing the country to build up a positive trade balanceby selling more goods than it bought. That was the theory, but asMichael Rowbotham observes, it has not worked well in practice:

There is the obvious, but frequently ignored point that, whilstlowering the value of a currency may promote exports, it willalso raise the cost of imports. This of course is intended to deterimports. But if the demand for imports is "inelastic," reflectingessential goods and services, contracts and preferences, then thenet cost of imports may not fall, and may actually rise. Also,whilst the volume of exports may rise, appearing to promisegreater earnings, the financial return per unit of exports will fall. . .Time and time again, nations devaluing their currencies haveseen volumes of exports and imports alter slightly, but with littleoverall impact on the financial balance of trade.14

If the benefits of letting the currency float were minor, thedownsides were major: the currency was now subject to rampantmanipulation by speculators. The result was a disastrous roller coaster

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ride, particularly for Third World economies. Today, most currencytrades are done purely for speculative profit. Currencies rise or falldepending on quantities traded each day. Bernard Lietaer writes inThe Future of Money:

Your money's value is determined by a global casino ofunprecedented proportions: $2 trillion are traded per day inforeign exchange markets, 200 times more than the trading volumeof all the stock markets of the world combined. Only 2% of theseforeign exchange transactions relate to the "real" economyreflecting movements of real goods and services in the world,and 98% are purely speculative. This global casino is triggeringthe foreign exchange crises which shook Mexico in 1994-5, Asiain 1997 and Russia in 1998.15

The alternative to letting the currency float is for a nationalgovernment to keep its currency tightly pegged to the U.S. dollar, butgovernments that have taken that course have faced other hazards.The currency becomes vulnerable to the monetary policies of the UnitedStates; and if the country does not set its peg right, it can still be thetarget of currency raids. In the interests of "free trade," the governmentusually agrees to keep its currency freely convertible into dollars. Thatmeans it has to stand ready to absorb any surpluses or fill any shortagesin the exchange market; and to do this, it has to have enough dollarsin reserve to buy back the local currency of anyone wanting to sell. Ifthe government guesses wrong and sets the peg too high (so that itscurrency will not really buy as much as the equivalent in dollars),there will be "capital flight" out of the local currency into the morevaluable dollars. (Indeed, speculators can induce capital flight evenwhen the peg isn't set too high, as we'll see shortly.) Capital flight canforce the government to spend its dollar reserves to "defend" itscurrency peg; and when the reserves are exhausted, the governmentwill either have to default on its obligations or let its currency bedevalued. When the value of the currency drops, so does everythingvalued in it. National assets can then be snatched up by circling"vulture capitalists" for pennies on the dollar.

Following all this can be a bit tricky, but the bottom line is thatthere is no really safe course at present for most small Third Worldnations. Whether their currencies are left to float or are kept tightlypegged to the dollar, they can still be attacked by speculators. There isa third alternative, but few countries have been in a position to take it:the government can peg its currency to the dollar and not support its

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free conversion into other currencies.16 Professor Henry C. K. Liu, theChinese American economist quoted earlier, says that China escapedthe 1998 "Asian crisis" in this way. He writes:

China was saved from such a dilemma because the yuan wasnot freely convertible. In a fundamental way, the Chinese miracle ofthe past half a decade has been made possible by its fixed exchangerate and currency control ....

But China too has been under pressure to let its currency float.Liu warns the country of his ancestors:

[T]he record of the past three decades shows that neo-liberalideology brought devastation to every economy it invaded ....China will not be exempt from such a fate when it makes theyuan fully convertible at floating rates.17

There is no real solution to this problem short of global monetaryreform. China's money system is explored in detail in Chapter 27,and proposals for reforming the international system are explored inChapter 46.

Setting the Debt Trap:"Emerging Markets" for Petrodollar Loans

When the price of oil quadrupled in the 1970s, OPEC countrieswere suddenly flooded with U.S. currency; and these "petrodollars"were usually deposited in London and New York banks. They werean enormous windfall for the banks, which recycled them as low-interest loans to Third World countries that were desperate to borrowdollars to finance their oil imports. Like other loans made by commercialbanks, these loans did not actually consist of money deposited by theirclients. The deposits merely served as "reserves" for loans created bythe "multiplier effect" out of thin air.18 Through the magic of fractional-reserve lending, dollars belonging to Arab sheiks were multiplied manytimes over as accounting-entry loans. The "emerging nations" werediscovered as "emerging markets" for this new international financialcapital. Hundreds of billions of dollars in loan money were generatedin this way.

Before 1973, Third World debt was manageable and contained. Itwas financed mainly through public agencies including the WorldBank, which invested in projects promising solid economic success.19But things changed when private commercial banks got into the game.

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Web of Debt

The banks were not in the business of "development." They were inthe business of loan brokering. Some called it "loan sharking." Thebanks preferred "stable" governments for clients. Generally, that meantgovernments controlled by dictators. How these dictators had cometo power, and what they did with the money, were not of immediateconcern to the banks. The Philippines, Chile, Brazil, Argentina, andUruguay were all prime loan targets. In many cases, the dictatorsused the money for their own ends, without significantly bettering thecondition of the people; but the people were saddled with the bill.

The screws were tightened in 1979, when the U.S. Federal Reserveunder Chairman Paul Volcker unilaterally hiked interest rates tocrippling levels. Engdahl notes that this was done after foreign dollar-holders began dumping their dollars in protest over the foreign policiesof the Carter administration. Within weeks, Volcker allowed U.S.interest rates to triple. They rose to over 20 percent, forcing globalinterest rates through the roof, triggering a global recession and massunemployment.20 By 1982, the dollar's status as global reserve currencyhad been saved, but the entire Third World was on the brink ofbankruptcy, choking from usurious interest charges on their petrodollarloans.

That was when the IMF got in the game, brought in by the Londonand New York banks to enforce debt repayment and act as "debtpoliceman." Public spending for health, education and welfare indebtor countries was slashed, following IMF orders to ensure that thebanks got timely debt service on their petrodollars. The banks alsobrought pressure on the U.S. government to bail them out from theconsequences of their imprudent loans, using taxpayer money andU.S. assets to do it. The results were austerity measures for ThirdWorld countries and taxation for American workers to provide welfarefor the banks. The banks were emboldened to keep aggressivelylending, confident that they would again be bailed out if the debtors'loans went into default.

Worse for American citizens, the United States itself ended up amajor debtor nation. Because oil is an essential commodity for everycountry, the petrodollar system requires other countries to build uphuge trade surpluses in order to accumulate the dollar surpluses theyneed to buy oil. These countries have to sell more goods in dollarsthan they buy, to give them a positive dollar balance. That is true forevery country except the United States, which controls the dollar andissues it at will. More accurately, the Federal Reserve and the privatecommercial banking system it represents control the dollar and issue

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Chapter 21 - Goodbye Yellow Brick Road

it at will. Since U.S. economic dominance depends on the dollarrecycling process, the United States has acquiesced in becoming"importer of last resort." The result has been to saddle it with agrowing negative trade balance or "current account deficit." By 2000,U.S. trade deficits and net liabilities to foreign accounts were well over22 percent of gross domestic product. In 2001, the U.S. stock marketcollapsed; and tax cuts and increased federal spending turned thefederal budget surplus into massive budget deficits. In the three yearsafter 2000, the net U.S. debt position almost doubled. The UnitedStates had to bring in $1.4 billion in foreign capital daily, just to fundthis debt and keep the dollar recycling game going. By 2006, the figurewas up to $2.5 billion daily.21 The people of the United States, likethose of the Third World, have become hopelessly mired in debt tosupport the banking system of a private international cartel.

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Chapter 22THE TEQUILA TRAP:THE REAL STORY BEHINDTHE ILLEGAL ALIEN INVASION

The Witch bade her clean the pots and kettles and sweep the floorand keep the fire fed with wood. Dorothy went to work meekly, withher mind made up to work as hard as she could; for she was glad theWicked Witch had decided not to kill her.

- The Wonderful Wizard ofOz,"The Search for the Wicked Witch"

Waves of immigrants are now pouring over the Mexicanborder into the United States in search of work, precipitatingan illegal alien crisis for Americans. Vigilante border patrols viewthese immigrants as potential terrorists, but in fact they are refugeesfrom an economic war that has deprived them of their own propertyand forced them into debt bondage to a private global banking cartel.When Mexico was conquered in 1520, the mighty Aztec empire wasruled by the unsuspecting, hospitable Montezuma. The SpanishGeneral Cortes, propelled by the lure of gold, conquered by warfare,violence and genocide. When Mexico fell again in the twentiethcentury, it was to a more covert form of aggression, one involving adrastic devaluation of its national currency.

If Montezuma's curse was his copious store of gold, for Mexico inthe twentieth century it was the country's copious store of oil. WilliamEngdahl tells the story in his revealing political history A Century ofWar. He notes that the first Mexican national Constitution vested thegovernment with "direct ownership of all minerals, petroleum andhydro-carbons" in 1917. But when British and American oil interestspersisted in an intense behind-the-scenes battle for these oil reserves,

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the Mexican government finally nationalized all its foreign oil holdings.The move led the British and American oil majors to boycott Mexicofor the next forty years. When new oil reserves were discovered inMexico in the 1970s, President Jose Lopez Portillo undertook animpressive modernization and industrialization program, and Mexicobecame the most rapidly growing economy in the developing world.But the prospect of a strong industrial Mexico on the southern borderof the United States was intolerable to certain powerful Anglo-American interests, who determined to sabotage Mexico'sindustrialization by securing rigid repayment of its foreign debt. Thatwas when interest rates were tripled. Third World loans wereparticularly vulnerable to this manipulation, because they were usuallysubject to floating or variable interest rates.1

Why did Mexico need to go into debt to foreign lenders? It had itsown oil in abundance. It had accepted development loans earlier, butit had largely paid them off. The problem for Mexico was that it wasone of those intrepid countries that had declined to let its nationalcurrency float. Mexico's dollar reserves were exhausted by speculativeraids in the 1980s, forcing it to borrow just to defend the value of thepeso.2 According to Henry Liu, writing in The Asia Times, Mexico'smistake was in keeping its currency freely convertible into dollars,requiring it to keep enough dollar reserves to buy back the pesos ofanyone wanting to sell. When those reserves ran out, it had to borrowdollars on the international market just to maintain its currency peg.3

In 1982, President Portillo warned of "hidden foreign interests"that were trying to destabilize Mexico through panic rumors, causingcapital flight out of the country. Speculators were cashing in theirpesos for dollars and depleting the government's dollar reserves inanticipation that the peso would have to be devalued. In an attemptto stem the capital flight, the government cracked under the pressureand did devalue the peso; but while the currency immediately lost 30percent of its value, the devastating wave of speculation continued.Mexico was characterized as a "high-risk country," leadinginternational lenders to decline to roll over their loans. Caught bypeso devaluation, capital flight, and lender refusal to roll over its debt,the country faced economic chaos. At the General Assembly of theUnited Nations, President Portillo called on the nations of the worldto prevent a "regression into the Dark Ages" precipitated by theunbearably high interest rates of the global bankers.

In an attempt to stabilize the situation, the President took the boldmove of taking charge of the banks. The Bank of Mexico and the

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country's private banks were taken over by the government, withcompensation to their private owners. It was the sort of movecalculated to set off alarm bells for the international banking cartel. Aglobal movement to nationalize the banks could destroy their wholeeconomic empire. They wanted the banks privatized and under theircontrol. The U.S. Secretary of State was then George Shultz, a majorplayer in the 1971 unpegging of the dollar from gold. He respondedwith a plan to save the Wall Street banking empire by having the IMFact as debt policeman. Henry Kissinger's consultancy firm was calledin to design the program. The result, says Engdahl, was "the mostconcerted organized looting operation in modern history," carrying"the most onerous debt collection terms since the Versailles reparationsprocess of the early 1920s," the debt repayment plan blamed forpropelling Germany into World War II.4

Mexico's state-owned banks were returned to private ownership,but they were sold strictly to domestic Mexican purchasers. Not untilthe North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) was foreign com-petition even partially allowed. Signed by Canada, Mexico and theUnited States, NAFTA established a "free-trade" zone in NorthAmerica to take effect on January 1, 1994. In entering the agreement,Carlos Salinas, the outgoing Mexican President, broke with decadesof Mexican policy of high tariffs to protect state-owned industry fromcompetition by U.S. corporations.

By 1994, Mexico had restored its standing with investors. It had abalanced budget, a growth rate of over three percent, and a stockmarket that was up fivefold. In February 1995, Jane Ingraham wrotein The New American that Mexico's fiscal policy was in some respects"superior and saner than our own wildly spendthrift Washingtoncircus." Mexico received enormous amounts of foreign investment,after being singled out as the most promising and safest of LatinAmerican markets. Investors were therefore shocked and surprisedwhen newly-elected President Ernesto Zedillo suddenly announced a13 percent devaluation of the peso, since there seemed no valid reasonfor the move. The following day, Zedillo allowed the formerly managedpeso to float freely against the dollar. The peso immediately plungedby 39 percent.5

What was going on? In 1994, the U.S. Congressional Budget OfficeReport on NAFTA had diagnosed the peso as "overvalued" by 20percent. The Mexican government was advised to unpeg the currencyand let it float, allowing it to fall naturally to its "true" level. Thetheory was that it would fall by only 20 percent; but that is not what

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happened. The peso eventually dropped by 300 percent - 15 times thepredicted fall.6 Its collapse was blamed on the lack of "investorconfidence" due to Mexico's negative trade balance; but as Ingrahamobserves, investor confidence was quite high immediately before thecollapse. If a negative trade balance is what sends a currency intomassive devaluation and hyperinflation, the U.S. dollar itself shouldhave been driven there long ago. By 2001, U.S. public and privatedebt totaled ten times the debt of all Third World countries combined.7

Although the peso's collapse was supposedly unanticipated, over4 billion U.S. dollars suddenly and mysteriously left Mexico in the 20days before it occurred. Six months later, this money had twice theMexican purchasing power it had earlier. Later commentators main-tained that lead investors with inside information precipitated the stam-pede out of the peso.8 The suspicion was that these investors werethe same parties who profited from the Mexican bailout that followed.When Mexico's banks ran out of dollars to pay off its creditors (whichwere largely U.S. banks), the U.S. government stepped in with U.S.tax dollars. The Mexican bailout was engineered by Robert Rubin,who headed the investment bank Goldman Sachs before he becameU.S. Treasury Secretary. Goldman Sachs was then heavily invested inshort-term dollar-denominated Mexican bonds. The bailout was ar-ranged the day of Rubin's appointment. The money provided by U.S.taxpayers did not go to Mexico but went straight into the vaults ofGoldman Sachs, Morgan Stanley, and other big American lenderswhose risky loans were on the line.9

The late Jude Wanniski was a conservative economist who was atone time a Wall Street Tournal editor and adviser to President Reagan.He cynically observed of this banker coup:

There was a big party at Morgan Stanley after the Mexican pesodevaluation, people from all over Wall Street came, they drankchampagne and smoked cigars and congratulated themselveson how they pulled it off and they made a fortune. These peopleare pirates, international pirates.10

The loot was more than just the profits of gamblers who had betthe right way. The pirates actually got control of Mexico's banks.NAFTA rules had already opened the nationalized Mexican bankingsystem to a number of U.S. banks, with Mexican licenses being grantedto 18 big foreign banks and 16 brokers including Goldman Sachs. Butthese banks could bring in no more than 20 percent of the system'stotal capital, limiting their market share in loans and securities

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holdings.11 By 2004, this limitation had been removed. All but one ofMexico's major banks had been sold to foreign banks, which gainedtotal access to the formerly closed Mexican banking market.12

The value of Mexican pesos and Mexican stocks collapsed together,supposedly because there was a stampede to sell and no one aroundto buy; but buyers with ample funds were sitting on the sidelines,waiting to pick over the devalued stock at bargain basement prices.The result was a direct transfer of wealth from the local economy tointernational money manipulators. The devaluation also precipitateda wave of privatizations (sales of public assets to private corporations),as the Mexican government tried to meet its spiraling debt crisis. In aFebruary 1996 article called "Militant Capitalism," David Petersonblamed the rout on an assault on the peso by short-sellers. He wrote:

The austerity measures that the U.S. government and the IMFforced on Mexicans in the aftermath of last winter's assault onthe peso by short-sellers in the foreign exchange markets havebeen something to behold. Almost overnight, the Mexican peoplehave had to endure dramatic cuts in government spending; asharp hike in regressive sales taxes; at least one million layoffs (aconservative estimate); a spike in interest rates so pronouncedas to render their debts unserviceable (hence El Barzon, a nation-wide movement of small debtors to resist property seizures andto seek a rescheduling of their debts); a collapse in consumerspending on the order of 25 percent by mid-year; and, in brief, a10.5 percent contraction in overall economic activity during thesecond quarter, with more of the same sure to follow.13

By 1995, Mexico's foreign debt was more than twice the country'stotal debt payment for the previous century and a half. Per-capitaincome had fallen by almost a third from a year earlier, and Mexicanpurchasing power had fallen by well over 50 percent.14 Mexico waspropelled into a crippling national depression that has lasted for overa decade. As in the U.S. depression of the 1930s, the actual value ofMexican businesses and assets did not change during this speculator-induced crisis. What changed was simply that currency had beensucked out of the economy by investors stampeding to get out of theMexican stock market, leaving insufficient money in circulation to payworkers, buy raw materials, finance loans, and operate the country.It was further evidence that when short-selling is allowed, currenciesare driven into hyperinflation not by the market mechanism of "supplyand demand" but by the concerted action of currency speculators.

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Chapter 22 - The Tequila Trap

The flipside of this also appears to be true: the U.S. dollar remainsstrong despite its plunging trade balance, because it has been artificiallymanipulated up by the Fed. (More on this in Chapter 33.) Marketmanipulators, not free market forces, are in control.

International Pirates Prowlingin a Sea of Floating Currencies

Countries around the world have been caught in the same trapthat captured Mexico. Henry C K Liu calls it the "Tequila Trap." Healso calls it "a suicidal policy masked by the giddy expansion typicalof the early phase of a Ponzi scheme." The lure in the trap is thepromise of massive dollar investment. At first, returns are spectacular;but as with every Ponzi scheme, the returns eventually collapse, leavingthe people massively in debt to foreign bankers who will become theirnew economic masters.15 The former Soviet states, the Tiger economiesof Southeast Asia, and the Latin American banana republics allsuccumbed to these rapacious tactics. Local ineptitude and corruptpoliticians are blamed, when the real culprits are international bankingspeculators armed with tsunami-sized walls of "credit" created oncomputer screens. Targeted countries are advised that to attract foreigninvestment, they must make their currencies freely convertible intodollars at prevailing or "floating" exchange rates, and they must keepadequate dollars in reserve for anyone who wants to change from onecurrency to another. After the trap is set, the speculators move in.Speculation has been known to bring down currencies and nationaleconomics in a single day. Michel Chossudovsky, Professor ofEconomics at the University of Ottawa, writes:

The media tends to identify these currency crises as being theproduct of some internal mechanism, internal politicalweaknesses or corruption. The linkages to international financeare downplayed. The fact of the matter is that currency speculation,using speculative instruments, was ultimately the means wherebythese central bank reserves were literally confiscated by privatespeculators.16

While economists debate the fiscal pros and cons of "floating"exchange rates, from a legal standpoint they represent a blatant fraudon the people who depend on a stable medium of exchange. They areas much a fraud as a grocer's scales with a rock on it. If a farmer's

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peso was worth thirty cents yesterday and is worth only five centstoday, his dozen eggs have suddenly shrunk to two eggs, his dozenapples to two apples. The very notion that a country has to "defend"its currency shows that there is something wrong with the system.Inches don't have to defend themselves against millimeters butpeacefully co-exist with them side by side on the same yardstick. Asovereign government has both the right and the duty to calibrate itsmedium of exchange so that it is a stable measure of purchasing powerfor its people. How a stable international currency yardstick might bedevised is explored in Section VI.

The Tequila Trap and "Free Trade"

The "Tequila Trap" is the contemporary version of what HenryCarey and the American nationalists warned against in the nineteenthcentury, when they spoke of the dangers of opening a country's bordersto "free trade." Carey said sovereign nations should pay their debts intheir own currencies, issued Greenback-style by their own govern-ments. Professor Liu also advocates this approach, which he calls"sovereign credit." Carey called it "national credit," something hedefined as "a national system based entirely on the credit of thegovernment with the people, not liable to interference from abroad."Carey also called it the "American system" to distinguish it from the"British system" of free trade.

Abraham Lincoln was forging ahead with that revolutionarymodel when he was assassinated. Carey and his faction, realizing thatthe country was facing the very real threat that the banking intereststhat had captured England would also capture America, then movedto form a bulwark against this encroaching menace by planting theseeds of the American system abroad. In the twentieth century, theBritish system did prevail in America; but the American system wasquietly taking root overseas ....

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Chapter 23FREEING THE YELLOW WINKIES:THE GREENBACK SYSTEMFLOURISHES ABROAD

The Cowardly Lion was much pleased to hear that the WickedWitch had been melted by a bucket of water, and Dorothy at onceunlocked the gate of his prison and set him free. They went in togetherto the castle, where Dorothy's first act was to call all the Winkiestogether and tell them that they were no longer slaves. There was greatrejoicing among the yellow Winkies, for they had been made to workhard during many years for the Wicked Witch, who had always treatedthem with great cruelty.

- The Wonderful Wizard ofOz,"The Rescue"

According to later commentators, Frank Baum's yellowWinkies represented the world's exploited and oppressed. Inthe late nineteenth century, the United States was engaged in an im-perial war with the Philippines, which was vigorously opposed byWilliam Jennings Bryan, the Populist Lion. The Chinese had also beenexploited in the Opium Wars, and Chinese immigrants worked likeslaves on the railroads of the American West. To Henry Carey, theywere all victims of the "British system," a form of political economybased on "free trade" and the "gold standard." He wrote in The Har-mony of Interests in 1851:

Two systems are before the world One looks to underworking

[underpaying or exploiting] the Hindoo, and sinking the rest ofthe world to his level; the other to raising the standard of manthroughout the world to our level. One looks to pauperism,ignorance, depopulation, and barbarism; the other to increasing

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wealth, comfort, intelligence, combination of action, andcivilization. One looks towards universal war; the other towardsuniversal peace. One is the English system; the other we may beproud to call the American system, for it is the only one ever devisedthe tendency of which was that of elevating while equalizing thecondition of man throughout the world.

In The Slave Trade, Domestic and Foreign, published in 1853, Careywrote:

By adopting the "free trade," or British, system, we placeourselves side by side with the men who have ruined Irelandand India, and are now poisoning and enslaving the Chinesepeople. By adopting the other, we place ourselves by the side ofthose whose measures tend not only to the improvement of theirown subjects, but to the emancipation of the slave everywhere,whether in the British Islands, India, Italy, or America.

America had narrowly escaped the fate of the Irish, Indians andChinese only because President Lincoln had stood up to the bankers,rejecting their usurious loans in favor of government-issued Green-backs. He had sponsored a government program in which the coun-try would convert its own raw materials into manufactured goods,funding its own internal development by generating its own money,avoiding interest payments and subservience to middlemen, foreignor domestic. When Lincoln was assassinated and the British systemgot the upper hand, Carey and the American nationalists saw theneed to develop a network of allies against this imminent threat. Theyencouraged political factions in Russia, Japan, Germany and Franceto bring their governments in accord with Lincoln's policies, forminga potential alliance that could destroy the British empire's financialhegemony. That alliance would later be disrupted by two world wars,but the foundations had been laid.1

The hundredth anniversary of the American Revolution wascommemorated in 1876 with a Centennial in Philadelphia organizedby Henry Carey and his circle. It was a World Fair that celebratedhuman freedom and potential through collective efforts to developscience, technology, transportation and communications. TheCareyites funded Thomas Edison's "invention factory," whichdisplayed its first telegraphic inventions at the Centennial exposition.Later, Edison was challenged by Carey's Philadelphia group to developelectricity; and Edison's partner introduced electric street cars andsubway trains. Many other countries had their own displays at the

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Philadelphia Centennial as well, including the French, who donatedthe Statue of Liberty; and millions of people attended from all over theworld. Foreign delegates met with the Philadelphia group to discussindustrialization and the development of an economic system in theirown countries along the lines envisioned by Franklin and Lincoln.2

Tom Paine had called debt-free government-issued money thecornerstone of the American Revolution. The cornerstone had beenrejected in America; but it was being studied by innovative leadersabroad, and some of them wound up rejecting the privately-createdmoney of foreign financiers in favor of this home-grown variety. AsWall Street came to dominate American politics and the Americanmedia, these "nationalized" banking systems would be branded un-American; but they were actually made in America, patterned afterthe prototypes of Franklin, Lincoln, Carey and the AmericanGreenbackers. Russia and China developed national banking systemson the American model in the nineteenth century, well before thecommunist revolutions that overthrew their monarchies. Ironically,the Marxist political system they later adopted was devised in GreatBritain and retained the class structure of the "British system," with asmall financial elite ruling over masses of laborers.3 The Americansystem of Franklin, Hamilton and Lincoln was something quitedifferent. It celebrated private enterprise and the entrepreneurial spirit,while providing a collective infrastructure under which competitivecapitalism could flourish. This protective government umbrellafurnished checks and balances that prevented exploitation bymonopolies and marauding foreign interests, allowed science andtechnology to bloom, and provided funding for projects that "promotedthe general welfare," improving the collective human condition bydrawing on the credit of the nation.

The Russian Experience

America's alliance with Russia dated back to the 1850s, whenHenry Carey helped turn American opinion in Russia's favor with hisnewspaper writings. Carey argued that America should back Russiaagainst England in the Crimean War. Russia, in turn, sent ships toback Lincoln against the British-backed Confederacy. The Americansystem of economics was introduced to St. Petersburg by the U.S.ambassador. In 1861, Tsar Alexander II abolished serfdom andlaunched an economic plan for developing agricultural science,

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communications, railroads, and other infrastructure; and Americaprovided scientific and technological know-how to help Russiaindustrialize. In 1862, Russia established a uniform national currency,a national tax levy system, and a state-owned central bank.4 By thebeginning of World War I, the Russian State Bank had become one ofthe most influential lending institutions in Europe. It had vast goldreserves, actively granted credit to aid industry and trade, and wasthe chief source of funds for Russia's war effort.5

A group of Russian entrepreneurs fought to copy the Americansystem advanced by Carey and his faction, but they faced stiff opposi-tion from the landed nobility, who were backed by international bank-ing interests. Although the Tsar had liberated the peasants, the nobil-ity forced such onerous conditions on their freedom that they remainedexploited and oppressed. The peasants had to pay huge "redemptionfees" to their former masters, and they were given insufficient land tosupport themselves. World War I imposed further burdens. Most ofthe working men were taken to fight the war, and those who remainedhad to work grueling hours in serf-like conditions. The people wereforced off the land into overcrowded cities, where famine broke out.Although the peasants did not actually initiate the Russian Revolu-tion, when the match was lit, they provided the tinder to set it ablaze.

Overthrowing the Revolution

There were actually two Russian revolutions. The first, called theFebruary Revolution, was a largely bloodless transfer of power fromthe Tsar to a regime of liberals and socialists led by Alexander Kerensky,who intended to instigate political reform along democratic lines. Thefar bloodier October Revolution was essentially a coup, in whichKerensky was overthrown by Vladimir Lenin with the support of LeonTrotsky and some 300 supporters who came with him from New York.Born Lev Bronstein, Trotsky was a Bolshevik revolutionary who hadgone to New York after being expelled from France in 1916. He andhis band of supporters returned to Russia in 1917 with substantialfunding from a mystery Wall Street donor, widely thought to be JacobSchiff of Kuhn Loeb. Trotsky's New York recruits later adopted Rus-sian names and made up the bulk of the Communist Party leader-ship.6

Why was a second Russian revolution necessary? The reasons areno doubt complex, but in The Creature from Tekyll Island, Ed Griffin

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suggests one that is not found in standard history texts. He observesthat Trotsky and the Bolsheviks received strong support from the high-est financial and political power centers in the United States, menwho were supposedly "capitalists" and should have strongly opposedsocialism and communism. Griffin maintains that Lenin, Trotsky andtheir supporters were not sent to Russia to overthrow the Tsar. Rather,"Their assignment from Wall Street was to overthrow the revolution."In support, he quotes Eugene Lyons, a correspondent for United Presswho was in Russia during the Revolution. Lyons wrote:

Lenin, Trotsky and their cohorts did not overthrow themonarchy. They overthrew the first democratic society in Russianhistory, set up through a truly popular revolution in March, 1917. . . .

They represented the smallest of the Russian radical movements.... But theirs was a movement that scoffed at numbers and franklymistrusted multitudes.... Lenin always sneered at the obsession ofcompeting socialist groups with their "mass base." "Give us anorganization of professional revolutionaries," he used to say, "andwe will turn Russia upside down."

. . . Within a few months after they attained power, most of thetsarist practices the Leninists had condemned were revived, usuallyin more ominous forms: political prisoners, convictions without trialand without the formality of charges, savage persecution ofdissenting views, death penalties for more varieties of crime thanany other modern nation.7

Lenin, Trotsky and their supporters kept Russia in the hands of asmall group of elite called the Communist Party, who were largelyforeign imports. The Party kept Russian commerce open to "freetrade," and it kept the banking system open to private manipulation.In 1917, the country's banking system was nationalized as the People'sBank of the Russian Republic; but this system was dissolved in 1920,as contradicting the Communist idea of a "moneyless economy."8Griffin writes:

In 1922, the Soviets formed their first international bank. Itwas not owned and run by the state as would be dictated by Communisttheory but was put together by a syndicate of private bankers. Theseincluded not only former Tsarist bankers, but representatives ofGerman, Swedish, and American banks. Most of the foreigncapital came from England, including the British governmentitself. The man appointed as Director of the Foreign Division of

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the new bank was Max May, Vice President of Morgan'sGuaranty Trust Company in New York.

... In the years immediately following the October Revolution,there was a steady stream of large and lucrative (read non-competitive) contracts issued by the Soviets to British andAmerican businesses . . . U.S., British, and German wolves soonfound a bonanza of profit selling to the new Soviet regime.9

The Cold War

If these arrangements were so lucrative for Anglo-American busi-ness interests, why did the United States target Soviet Russia as theenemy in the Cold War following World War II? The plans of theinternational bankers evidently went awry after Lenin died in 1924.Trotsky was in line to become the new Soviet leader; but he got sick atthe wrong time, and Stalin grabbed the reins of power. For theTrotskyites and their Wall Street backers, Stalinist Communism thenbecame the enemy. Trotsky was expelled from Soviet Russia in 1928and returned for a time to New York, meeting his death in Mexico in1940 at the hands of a Soviet agent. Through most of the rest of thetwentieth century, the banking cartel fought to regain its turf in Rus-sia. The "Neocons" (or "New Conservatives"), the group most associ-ated with the Cold War, have been traced to the Trotskyites of the1930s.10

Srdja Trifkovic is a journalist who calls himself a"paleoconservative" (the "Old Right" as opposed to the "New Right").He writes that the Neocons moved "from the paranoid left to the para-noid right" after emerging from the anti-Stalinist far left in the late1930s and early 1940s.11 They had discovered that capitalism suitedtheir aims better than socialism, but they remained consistent in thoseaims, which were to prevail over the Russian regime and dominatethe world economically and militarily. They succeeded on the Rus-sian front when the Soviet economy finally collapsed in 1989. TheCentral Bank of the Russian Federation was added to the league ofcentral banks operating independently of federal and local govern-ments in 1991.12

The economic destruction of Russia and its satellites followed. JudeWanniski, the Reagan-era insider quoted earlier, said that "shocktherapy" was imposed on the Soviet countries after 1989 as anintentional continuation of the Cold War by other means. In a February

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2005 interview shortly before he died, Wanniski acknowledged thathe was at one time a Neocon himself; but he said that he had had tobreak with Neocon policies after the Iron Curtain came down. Herevealed:

We were all Cold Warriors, united in a very hard line againstCommunism in Moscow and in Beijing. [We] fought the ColdWar together and we were proud at being successful in thatCold War without having a nuclear exchange. But when theCold War ended . . . the Russians invited me to Moscow to tryand help them turn their communist system into a marketeconomy; and I was glad to do that, for free . . . but I had tobreak with my old friends because they said we didn't beat theseguys enough, we have to smash them into the ground, we want tofeed them bad economic advice, "shock therapy," so that they willfall apart.13

"Shock therapy" consisted of "austerity measures" imposed inreturn for financial assistance from the International Monetary Fundand its sister agency the World Bank. Also called "structuralreadjustment," these belt-tightening measures included eliminatingfood program subsidies, reducing wages, increasing corporate profits,and privatizing public industry. According to Canadian writer WayneEllwood, structural adjustment is "a code word for economicglobalization and privatization - a formula which aims both to shrinkthe role of the state and soften the market for private investors."14

Mark Weisbrot, co-director of the Center for Economic and PolicyResearch, testified before Congress in 1998 that Russia's steep declineafter 1989 was a direct result of the harsh policies of the IMF, whichwere used as tools for "subordinating the domestic economies of'emerging market' countries to the whims of international financialmarkets." He told Congress:

The IMF has presided over one of the worst economic declinesin modern history. Russian output has declined by more than40% since 1992 — a catastrophe worse than our own GreatDepression. Millions of workers are denied wages owed to them,a total of more than $12 billion. . . . These are the results of"shock therapy," a program introduced by the InternationalMonetary Fund in 1992. . . . First there was an immediate de-control of prices. . . . [I]nflation soared 520% in the first threemonths. Millions of people saw their savings and pensionsreduced to crumbs.15

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Chapter 23 - Freeing the Yellow Winkies

The IMF blamed the Russian hyperinflation on deficit spending bythe government, but Weisbrot said it wasn't true. The real culprit wasthe IMF's insistence on "tight money":

[F]or the first four years of "shock therapy," the governmentmostly stayed within the Fund's target range. [But] as theeconomic collapse continued, tax collection became increasinglydifficult. ... In addition, the necessary capital was not madeavailable for the potentially "efficient" firms to modernize. . . .Foreign direct investment was supposed to play a key role inproviding capital, but this never materialized, given the instabilityof the economy. During the first two years of "shock therapy,"the outflow of capital exceeded inflow by two to four times. . . .[T]he whole idea that Russian industry had to be destroyed, so thatthey could start from scratch on the basis of foreign investment, waswrong from the beginning.

Instead of providing capital to promote productivity, Weisbrot said,the IMF squandered $5 billion on trying to support the plunging rublein a futile attempt to maintain the exchange rate at 6 rubles to thedollar. The result was to deliver $5 billion into the hands of speculatorswhile setting off panic buying and a new round of inflation. Whatwas the point of trying to maintain the convertibility of the domesticcurrency into dollars? "The IMF argues that it is essential to creatinga climate in which foreign direct investment can be attracted," Weisbrotsaid, "but that is clearly not worth the price in Russia, where the capitalflows that were attracted were overwhelmingly speculative. This isanother example of the IMF's skewed priorities, which have nowbrought Russia to a state of economic and political chaos."

Russia had succumbed to the same sort of "free trade" policy thatallowed British financial interests to invade America in the nineteenthcentury. It had opened itself to dependence on money created byoutsiders, money it could have created itself — indeed had been creatingitself, before the wolf got in the door in the form of IMF "shock therapy."

The Soviet economic scheme had failed, but it was not because ofits banking system. Economists blamed the Marxist theory that pricesand employment must be determined by the State rather than left tomarket forces. The result was to stifle individual initiative and eliminatethe mechanisms for setting prices and allocating resources providedby the free market. This was very different from the "American system"prescribed by Henry Carey and the American nationalists, whoencouraged free markets and individual initiative under a collective

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infrastructure that helped the people to rise together. The seeds of theAmerican system just had not had a chance to grow properly in Russia.In other fields abroad, they took better root....

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Chapter 24SNEERING AT DOOM:GERMANY FINANCES A WARWITHOUT MONEY

"Frightened? You are talking to a man who has laughed in the faceof death, sneered at doom, and chuckled at catastrophe. I was petrified.Then suddenly the wind changed, and the balloon floated down intothis noble city, where I was instantly proclaimed the First WizardDeluxe. Times being what they were, I accepted the job, retaining myballoon for a quick getaway."

- The Wizard of Oz (MGMfilm)

If anyone had sneered at doom, it was the Germans afterWorld War I. The bold wizardry by which they pulled them-selves out of bankruptcy to challenge the world in a second worldwar rivaled the audacity of the Kansas balloonist who mesmerizedOz. The Treaty of Versailles had imposed crushing reparations pay-ments on Germany. The German people were expected to reimbursethe costs of the war for all participants — costs totaling three times thevalue of all the property in the country. Speculation in the German markhad caused it to plummet, precipitating one of the worst runawayinflations in modern times. At its peak, a wheelbarrow full of 100billion-mark banknotes could not buy a loaf of bread. The nationaltreasury was completely broke, and huge numbers of homes and farmshad been lost to the banks and speculators. People were living inhovels and starving. Nothing like it had ever happened before - thetotal destruction of the national currency, wiping out people's sav-ings, their businesses, and the economy generally.

What to do? The German government followed the lead of theAmerican Greenbackers and issued its own fiat money. HjalmarSchacht, then head of the German central bank, is quoted in a bit of

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wit that sums up the German version of the "Greenback" miracle. AnAmerican banker had commented, "Dr. Schacht, you should come toAmerica. We've lots of money and that's real banking." Schachtreplied, "You should come to Berlin. We don't have money. That'sreal banking."1

The German people were in such desperate straits that theyrelinquished control of the country to a dictator, and in this theyobviously deviated from the "American system," which presupposeda democratically-governed Commonwealth. But autocratic authoritydid give Adolf Hitler something the American Greenbackers couldonly dream about - total control of the economy. He was able to testtheir theories, and he proved that they worked. Like for Lincoln,Hitler's choices were to either submit to total debt slavery or create hisown fiat money; and like Lincoln, he chose the fiat solution. Heimplemented a plan of public works along the lines proposed by JacobCoxey and the Greenbackers in the 1890s. Projects earmarked forfunding included flood control, repair of public buildings and privateresidences, and construction of new buildings, roads, bridges, canals,and port facilities. The projected cost of the various programs wasfixed at one billion units of the national currency. One billion non-inflationary bills of exchange, called Labor Treasury Certificates, werethen issued against this cost. Millions of people were put to work onthese projects, and the workers were paid with the TreasuryCertificates. The workers then spent the certificates on goods andservices, creating more jobs for more people. The certificates werealso referred to as MEFO bills, or sometimes as "Feder money." Theywere not actually debt-free; they were issued as bonds, and thegovernment paid interest on them. But they circulated as money andwere renewable indefinitely, and they avoided the need to borrowfrom international lenders or to pay off international debts.2

Within two years, the unemployment problem had been solvedand the country was back on its feet. It had a solid, stable currencyand no inflation, at a time when millions of people in the United Statesand other Western countries were still out of work and living onwelfare. Germany even managed to restore foreign trade, although itwas denied foreign credit and was faced with an economic boycottabroad. It did this by using a barter system: equipment andcommodities were exchanged directly with other countries,circumventing the international banks. This system of direct exchangeoccurred without debt and without trade deficits. Germany's economicexperiment, like Lincoln's, was short-lived; but it left some lasting

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monuments to its success, including the famous Autobahn, the world'sfirst extensive superhighway.3

According to Stephen Zarlenga in The Lost Science of Money, Hitlerwas exposed to the fiat-money solution when he was assigned byGerman Army intelligence to watch the German Workers Party afterWorld War I. He attended a meeting that made a deep impression onhim, at which the views of Gottfried Feder were propounded:

The basis of Feder's ideas was that the state should create andcontrol its money supply through a nationalized central bankrather than have it created by privately owned banks, to whominterest would have to be paid. From this view derived theconclusion that finance had enslaved the population by usurpingthe nation's control of money.4

Zarlenga traces the idea that the state should create its own moneyto German theorists who had apparently studied the earlier Ameri-can Greenback movement. Where Feder and Hitler diverged from theAmerican Greenbackers was in equating the financiers who had en-slaved the population with the ethnic race of the prominent bankersof the day. The result was to encourage a wave of anti-semitism thatdarkened Germany and blackened its leader's name. The nineteenthcentury Greenbackers saw more clearly what the true enemy was -not an ethnic group but a financial scheme, one that transferred thepower to create money from the collective body of the people to aprivate banking elite. The terrible human rights violations Germanyfell into could have been avoided by a stricter adherence to the "Ameri-can system," keeping the reins of power with the people themselves.

While Hitler clearly deserved the opprobrium heaped on him forhis later military and racial aggressions, he was enormously popularwith the German people, at least for a time. Zarlenga suggests thatthis was because he temporarily rescued Germany from Englisheconomic theory - the theory that money must be borrowed againstthe gold reserves of a private banking cartel rather than issued outrightby the government. Again, the reasons for war are complex; butZarlenga postulates one that is not found in the history books:

Perhaps [Germany] was expected to borrow gold internationally,and that would have meant external control over her domesticpolicies. Her decision to use alternatives to gold, would meanthat the international financiers would be unable to exercise thiscontrol through the international gold standard, . . . and thismay have led to controlling Germany through warfare instead.5

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Dr. Henry Makow, a Canadian researcher, adds some evidencefor this theory. He quotes from the 1938 interrogation of C. G.Rakovsky, one of the founders of Soviet Bolshevism and a Trotskyintimate, who was tried in show trials in the USSR under Stalin.Rakovsky maintained that Hitler had actually been funded by theinternational bankers through their agent Hjalmar Schacht in orderto control Stalin, who had usurped power from their agent Trotsky.But Hitler had become an even bigger threat than Stalin when hetook the bold step of creating his own money. Rakovsky said:

[Hitler] took over for himself the privilege of manufacturingmoney and not only physical moneys, but also financial ones;he took over the untouched machinery of falsification and put itto work for the benefit of the state .... Are you capable ofimagining what would have come ... if it had infected a numberof other states and brought about the creation of a period ofautarchy. If you can, then imagine its counterrevolutionaryfunctions . . . .6

Autarchy is a national economic policy that aims at achieving self-sufficiency and eliminating the need for imports. Countries that takeprotectionist measures and try to prevent free trade are sometimesdescribed as autarchical. Rakowsky's statement recalls the editorialattributed to the The London Times, warning that if Lincoln'sGreenback plan were not destroyed, "that government will furnish itsown money without cost. It will pay off debts and be without a debt.It will have all the money necessary to carry on its commerce. It willbecome prosperous beyond precedent in the history of the civilizedgovernments of the world." Germany was well on its way to achievingthose goals. Henry C K Liu writes of the country's remarkabletransformation:

The Nazis came to power in Germany in 1933, at a time whenits economy was in total collapse, with ruinous war-reparationobligations and zero prospects for foreign investment or credit.Yet through an independent monetary policy of sovereign creditand a full-employment public-works program, the Third Reichwas able to turn a bankrupt Germany, stripped of overseascolonies it could exploit, into the strongest economy in Europewithin four years, even before armament spending began.7

In Billions for the Bankers, Debts for the People (1984), SheldonEmry also credited Germany's startling rise from bankruptcy to a world

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power to its decision to issue its own money. He wrote:

Germany financed its entire government and war operation from1935 to 1945 without gold and without debt, and it took thewhole Capitalist and Communist world to destroy the Germanpower over Europe and bring Europe back under the heel of theBankers. Such history of money does not even appear in thetextbooks of public (government) schools today.

What does appear in modern textbooks is the disastrous runawayinflation suffered in 1923 by the Weimar Republic (the common namefor the republic that governed Germany from 1919 to 1933). Theradical devaluation of the German mark is cited as the textbookexample of what can go wrong when governments are given theunfettered power to print money. That is what it is cited for; butagain, in the complex world of economics, things are not always asthey seem ....

Another Look at the Weimar Hyperinflation

The Weimar financial crisis began with the crushing reparationspayments imposed at the Treaty of Versailles. Hjalmar Schacht, whowas currency commissioner for the Republic, complained:

The Treaty of Versailles is a model of ingenious measures for theeconomic destruction of Germany. . . . [T]he Reich could notfind any way of holding its head above the water other than bythe inflationary expedient of printing bank notes.

That is what he said at first; but Zarlenga writes that Schachtproceeded in his 1967 book The Magic of Money "to let the cat out ofthe bag, writing in German, with some truly remarkable admissionsthat shatter the 'accepted wisdom' the financial community haspromulgated on the German hyperinflation."8 Schacht revealed that itwas the privately-owned Reichsbank, not the German government, thatwas pumping new currency into the economy. Like the U.S. FederalReserve, the Reichsbank was overseen by appointed governmentofficials but was operated for private gain. The mark's dramaticdevaluation began soon after the Reichsbank was "privatized," ordelivered to private investors. What drove the wartime inflation intohyperinflation, said Schacht, was speculation by foreign investors, who wouldsell the mark short, betting on its decreasing value. Recall that in theshort sale, speculators borrow something they don't own, sell it, then

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Chapter 24 - Sneering at Doom

"cover" by buying it back at the lower price. Speculation in the Germanmark was made possible because the Reichsbank made massiveamounts of currency available for borrowing, marks that were createdon demand and lent at a profitable interest to the bank. When theReichsbank could not keep up with the voracious demand for marks,other private banks were allowed to create them out of nothing andlend them at interest as well.9

According to Schacht, not only was the government not the causeof the Weimar hyperinflation, but it was the government that got thedisaster under control. The Reichsbank was put under strict regulation,and prompt corrective measures were taken to eliminate foreignspeculation by eliminating easy access to loans of bank-created money.Hitler then got the country back on its feet with his MEFO bills issuedby the government.

Schacht actually disapproved of the new government-issued moneyand wound up getting fired as head of the Reichsbank when he refusedto issue it, something that may have saved him at the Nuremberg trials.But he acknowledged in his later memoirs that Feder's theories hadworked. Allowing the government to issue the money it needed hadnot produced the price inflation predicted by classical economic theory.Schacht surmised that this was because factories were sitting idle andpeople were unemployed. In this he agreed with Keynes: when theresources were available to increase productivity, adding money tothe economy did not increase prices; it increased goods and services.Supply and demand increased together, leaving prices unaffected.

These revelations put the notorious hyperinflations of modernhistory in a different light....

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Chapter 25ANOTHER LOOK AT THEINFLATION HUMBUG:SOME "TEXTBOOK"HYPERINFLATIONS REVISITED

There is no subtler, no surer means of overturning the existingbasis of society than to debauch the currency. The process engages allthe hidden forces of economic law on the side of destruction, and doesit in a manner which not one man in a million is able to diagnose.

- John Maynard Keynes,Economic Consequences of the Peace (1919)

The rampant runaway inflations of Third World economiesare widely blamed on desperate governments trying to solvetheir economic problems by running the currency printing presses,but closer examination generally reveals other hands to be at work.What causes merchants to raise their prices is not a sudden flood ofmoney from customers competing for their products because the moneysupply has been pumped up with new currency. Rather, it is a dra-matic increase in the merchants' own costs as a result of a radical de-valuation of the local currency; and this devaluation can usually betraced to manipulations in the currency's floating exchange rate. Hereare a few notable examples ....

The Ruble Collapse in Post-Soviet Russia

The usual explanation for the drastic runaway inflation thatafflicted Russia and its former satellites following the fall of the IronCurtain is that their governments resorted to printing their own money,diluting the money supply and driving up prices. But as William

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Engdahl shows in A Century of War, this is not what was actuallygoing on. Rather, hyperinflation was a direct and immediate result ofletting their currencies float in foreign exchange markets. He writes:

In 1992 the IMF demanded a free float of the Russian ruble aspart of its "market-oriented" reform. The ruble float led within ayear to an increase in consumer prices of 9,900 per cent, and a collapsein real wages of 84 per cent. For the first time since 1917, at leastduring peacetime, the majority of Russians were plunged intoexistential poverty. . . . Instead of the hoped-for American-styleprosperity, two-cars-in-every-garage capitalism, ordinaryRussians were driven into economic misery.1

After the Berlin Wall came down, the IMF was put in charge ofthe market reforms that were supposed to bring the former Sovietcountries in line with the Western capitalist economies that were domi-nated by the dollars of the private Federal Reserve and private U.S.banks. The Soviet people acquiesced, lulled by dreams of the sort ofprosperity they had seen in the American movies. But Engdahl says itwas all a deception:

The aim of Washington's IMF "market reforms" in the formerSoviet Union was brutally simple: destroy the economic ties thatbound Moscow to each part of the Soviet Union .... IMF shocktherapy was intended to create weak, unstable economies on theperiphery of Russia, dependent on Western capital and on dollarinflows for their survival — a form of neocolonialism.... The Russianswere to get the standard Third World treatment . . . IMFconditionalities and a plunge into poverty for the population. Atiny elite were allowed to become fabulously rich in dollar terms,and manipulable by Wall Street bankers and investors.

It was an intentional continuation of the Cold War by other means— entrapping the economic enemy with loans of accounting-entrymoney. Interest rates would then be raised to unpayable levels, andthe IMF would be put in charge of "reforms" that would open theeconomy to foreign exploitation in exchange for debt relief. Engdahlwrites:

The West, above all the United States, clearly wanted adeindustrialized Russia, to permanently break up the economicstructure of the old Soviet Union. A major area of the globaleconomy, which had been largely closed to the dollar domainfor more than seven decades, was to be brought under its control.. . . The new oligarchs were "dollar oligarchs."

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The Collapse of Yugoslavia and the Ukraine

Things were even worse in Yugoslavia, which suffered what hasbeen called the worst hyperinflation in history in 1993-94. Again, thetextbook explanation is that the government was madly printingmoney. As one college economics professor put it:

After Tito [the Yugoslavian Communist leader until 1980], theCommunist Party pursued progressively more irrationaleconomic policies. These policies and the breakup of Yugoslavia. . . led to heavier reliance upon printing or otherwise creatingmoney to finance the operation of the government and thesocialist economy. This created the hyperinflation.2

That was the conventional view, but Engdahl maintains that thereverse was actually true: the Yugoslav collapse occurred because theIMF prevented the government from obtaining the credit it needed fromits own central bank. Without the ability to create money and issuecredit, the government was unable to finance social programs andhold its provinces together as one nation. The country's real problemwas not that its economy was too weak but that it was too strong. Its"mixed model" combining capitalism and socialism was so successfulthat it threatened the bankers' IMF/ shock therapy model. Engdahlstates:

For over 40 years, Washington had quietly supported Yugoslavia,and the Tito model of mixed socialism, as a buffer against theSoviet Union. As Moscow's empire began to fall apart,Washington had no more use for a buffer - especially anationalist buffer which was economically successful, one thatmight convince neighboring states in eastern Europe that a middleway other than IMF shock therapy was possible. The Yugoslavmodel had to be dismantled, for this reason alone, in the eyes oftop Washington strategists. The fact that Yugoslavia also lay ona critical path to the potential oil riches of central Asia merelyadded to the argument.3

Yugoslavia was another victim of the Tequila Trap - the lure ofwealth and development if it would open its economy to foreigninvestment and foreign loans. According to a 1984 Radio Free Europereport, Tito had made the mistake of allowing the country the "luxury"of importing more goods than it exported, and of borrowing hugesums of money abroad to construct hundreds of factories that nevermade a profit. When the dollars were not available to pay back these

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loans, Yugoslavia had to turn to the IMF for debt relief. The jaws ofthe whale then opened, and Yugoslavia disappeared within.

As a condition of debt relief, the IMF demanded wholesaleprivatization of the country's state enterprises. The result was to bank-rupt more than 1,100 companies and produce more than 20 percentunemployment. IMF policies caused inflation to rise dramatically, untilby 1991 it was over 150 percent. When the government was not ableto create the money it needed to hold its provinces together, economicchaos followed, causing each region to fight for its own survival.Engdahl states:

Reacting to this combination of IMF shock therapy and directWashington destabilization, the Yugoslav president, Serbnationalist Slobodan Milosevic, organized a new CommunistParty in November 1990, dedicated to preventing the breakupof the federated Yugoslav Republic. The stage was set for agruesome series of regional ethnic wars which would last adecade and result in the deaths of more than 200,000 people.

... In 1992 Washington imposed a total economic embargoon Yugoslavia, freezing all trade and plunging the economy intochaos, with hyperinflation and 70 percent unemployment asthe result. The Western public, above all in the United States,was told by establishment media that the problems were all theresult of a corrupt Belgrade dictatorship.

Similar interventions precipitated runaway inflation in theUkraine, where the IMF "reforms" began with an order to end stateforeign exchange controls in 1994. The result was an immediatecollapse of the currency. The price of bread shot up 300 percent;electricity shot up 600 percent; public transportation shot up 900percent. State industries that were unable to get bank credit wereforced into bankruptcy. As a result, says Engdahl:

Foreign speculators were free to pick the jewels among the rubbleat dirt-cheap prices. . . . The result was that Ukraine, once thebreadbasket of Europe, was forced to beg food aid from the U.S.,which dumped its grain surpluses on Ukraine, further destroyinglocal food self-sufficiency. Russia and the states of the formerSoviet Union were being treated like the Congo or Nigeria, assources of cheap raw materials, perhaps the largest sources inthe world. . . . [T]hose mineral riches were now within the reachof Western multinationals for the first time since 1917.4

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The Case of Argentina

Meanwhile, the same debt monster that swallowed the former So-viet economies was busy devouring assets in Latin America. In Ar-gentina in the late 1980s, inflation shot up by as much as 5,000 per-cent. Again, this massive hyperinflation has been widely blamed onthe government madly printing money; and again, the facts turn outto be quite different....

Argentina had been troubled by inflation ever since 1947, whenJuan Peron came to power. Peron was a populist who implementedmany new programs for workers and the poor, but he did it withheavy deficit spending and taxation rather than by issuing moneyGreenback-style.5 What happened to the Argentine economy afterPeron is detailed in a 2006 Tufts University article by Carlos Escude,Director of the Center for International Studies at Universidad delCEMA in Buenos Aires. He writes that inflation did not become anational crisis until the eight-year period following Peron's death in1974. Then the inflation rate increased seven-fold, to an "astonish-ing" 206 percent. But this jump, says Professor Escude, was not causedby a sudden printing of pesos. Rather, it was the result of an inten-tional, radical devaluation of the currency by the new government,along with a 175 percent increase in the price of oil.

The devaluation was effected by dropping the peso's dollar peg toa fraction of its previous value; and this was done, according to insid-ers, with the intent of creating economic chaos. One source revealed,"The idea was to generate an inflationary stampede to depreciate the debtsof private firms, shatter the price controls in force since 1973, and espe-cially benefit exporters through devaluation." Economic chaos was wel-comed by pro-market capitalists, who pointed to it as proof that theinterventionist policies of the former government had been counter-productive and that the economy should be left to the free market.Economic chaos was also welcomed by speculators, who found that"[profiteering was a much safer way of making money than attempt-ing to invest, increase productivity, and compete in an economy char-acterized by financial instability, distorted incentives, and obstacles toefficient investment."

From that time onward, writes Professor Escude, "astronomicallyhigh inflation led to the proliferation of speculative financial schemesthat became a hallmark of Argentine financial life." One suicidal policyadopted by the government was to provide "exchange insurance" to

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private firms seeking foreign financing. The risk of exchange ratefluctuations was thus transferred from private businesses to thegovernment, encouraging speculative schemes that forced furthercurrency devaluation. Another disastrous government policy heldthat it was unfair for private firms contracting with the State to sufferlosses from financial instability or other unforeseen difficulties whilefulfilling their contracts. Again the risks got transferred to the State,encouraging predatory contractors to defraud and exploit thegovernment. The private contractors' lobby became so powerful thatthe government wound up agreeing to "nationalize" (or assumeresponsibility for) private external debts. The result was to transferthe debts of powerful private business firms to the taxpayers. Wheninterest rates shot up in the 1980s, the government dealt with thesedebts by "liquidification," evidently meaning that private liabilitieswere reduced by depreciating the currency. Again, however, thishyperinflation was not the result of the government printing moneyfor its operational needs. Rather, it was caused by an intentionaldevaluation of the currency to reduce the debts of private profiteers incontrol of the government.6

Making matters worse, Argentina was one of those countries tar-geted by international lenders for massive petrodollar loans. Whenthe rocketing interest rates of the 1980s made the loans impossible topay back, concessions were required of the country that put it at themercy of the IMF. Under a new government in the 1990s, Argentinadutifully tightened its belt and tried to follow the IMF's dictates. Tocurb the crippling currency devaluations, a "currency board" wasimposed in 1991 that maintained a strict one-to-one peg between theArgentine peso and the U.S. dollar. The Argentine government andits central bank were prohibited by law from printing their own pesos,unless the pesos were fully backed by dollars held as foreign reserves.7The maneuver worked to prevent currency devaluations, but the coun-try lost the flexibility it needed to compete in international markets.The money supply was fixed, limited and inflexible. The disastrousresult was national bankruptcy, in 1995 and again in 2001.

In the face of dire predictions that the economy would collapsewithout foreign credit, Argentina then defied its creditors and simplywalked away from its debts. By the fall of 2004, three years after arecord default on a debt of more than $100 billion, the country waswell on the road to recovery; and it had achieved this feat withoutforeign help. The economy grew by 8 percent for 2 consecutive years.Exports increased, the currency was stable, investors were returning,

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and unemployment had eased. "This is a remarkable historical event,one that challenges 25 years of failed policies," said Mark Weisbrot inan interview quoted in The New York Times. "While other countriesare just limping along, Argentina is experiencing very healthy growthwith no sign that it is unsustainable, and they've done it without hav-ing to make any concessions to get foreign capital inflows."8

In January 2006, Argentina's President Nestor Kirchner paid offthe country's entire debt to the IMF, totaling 9.81 billion U.S. dollars.Where did he get the dollars? The Argentine central bank had beenroutinely issuing pesos to buy dollars, in order to keep the dollar priceof the peso from dropping. The Argentine central bank had accumu-lated over 27 billion U.S. dollars in this way before 2006. Kirchnernegotiated with the bank to get a third of these dollar reserves, whichwere then used to pay the IMF debt.9

That the bank had been "issuing" pesos evidently meant that itwas creating money out of nothing; but the result was reportedly notinflationary, at least at first. According to a December 2006 article inThe Economist, the newly-issued pesos just stimulated the economy,providing the liquidity that was sorely needed by Argentina's money-starved businesses. By 2004, however, spare production had beenused up and inflation had again become a problem. President Kirchnerthen stepped in to control inflation by imposing price controls andexport bans. Critics said that these measures would halt investment,but according to The Economist:

So far they have been wrong. Argentina does lack foreigninvestment. But its own smaller companies have moved quicklyto expand capacity in response to demand. . . . Overall,investment has almost doubled as a percentage of GDP since2002, from 11% to 21.4%, enough to sustain growth of 4% ayear.10

When President Kirchner paid off the IMF debt in 2006, he hadhoped to get the central bank's dollar reserves debt-free; but he wasfoiled by certain "international funds." One disgruntled Argentinecommentator wrote:

Kirchner tried until the last moment to get hold of the [centralbank's] funds as if they were surplus, without contracting anydebt, but the international funds warned him that if he did so hewould provoke strong speculation against the Argentine peso.Kirchner folded like a hand of poker and indebted the State at ahigher rate.11

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Chapter 25 - Another Look at the Inflation Humbug

The "international funds" that threatened a speculative attack onthe currency were the so-called "vulture funds" that had previouslybought Argentina's public debt, in some cases for as little as 20 percentof its nominal value. Vulture funds are international financialorganizations that specialize in buying securities in distressedconditions, then circle like vultures waiting to pick over the remains ofthe rapidly weakening debtor. To avoid a speculative attack on itscurrency from these funds, the Argentine government was forced toissue public debt of $11 billion, in order to absorb the pesos issued tobuy the dollars to pay a debt to the IMF of under $10 billion. But toKirchner, it was evidently worth the price to get out from under thethumb of the IMF, which he said had been "a source of demands andmore demands," forcing "policies which provoked poverty and painamong Argentine people."12

The Case of Zimbabwe

The same foreign banking spider that has been busily spinning itsdebt web in the former Soviet Union and Latin America has also beenat work in Africa. A case recently in the news was that of Zimbabwe,which in August 2006 was reported to be suffering from a crushinghyperinflation of around 1,000 percent a year. As usual, the crisiswas blamed on the government frantically issuing money; and in thiscase, the government's printing presses were indeed running. But thecurrency's radical devaluation was still the fault of speculators, and itmight have been avoided if the government had used its printing pressesin a more prudent way.

The crisis dates back to 2001, when Zimbabwe defaulted on itsloans and the IMF refused to make the usual accommodations,including refinancing and loan forgiveness. Apparently, the IMFintended to punish the country for political policies of which itdisapproved, including land reform measures that involved reclaimingthe lands of wealthy landowners. Zimbabwe's credit was ruined andit could not get loans elsewhere, so the government resorted to issuingits own national currency and using the money to buy U.S. dollars onthe foreign-exchange market. These dollars were then used to pay theIMF and regain the country's credit rating.13 Unlike in Argentina,however, the government had to show its hand before the dollars werein it, leaving the currency vulnerable to speculative manipulation.According to a statement by the Zimbabwe central bank, the

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Web of Debt

hyperinflation was caused by speculators who charged exorbitant ratesfor U.S. dollars, causing a drastic devaluation of the Zimbabwecurrency.

The government's real mistake, however, may have been in playingthe IMF's game at all. Rather than using its national currency to buyforeign fiat money to pay foreign lenders, it could have followed thelead of Abraham Lincoln and the Guernsey islanders and issued itsown currency to pay for the production of goods and services for itsown people. Inflation would have been avoided, because the newly-created "supply" (goods and services) would have kept up with"demand" (the supply of money); and the currency would have servedthe local economy rather than being siphoned off by speculators. Butwhile that solution worked in Guernsey, Guernsey is an obscure islandwithout the gold and other marketable resources that make Zimbabwechoice spider-bait. Once a country has been caught in the foreigndebt trap, escape is no easy matter. Even the mighty Argentina, whichat one time was the world's seventh-richest country, was unable tostand up to the IMF and the "vulture funds" for long.

All of these countries have been victims of the Tequila Trap -succumbing to the enticement of foreign loans and investment, openingtheir currencies to speculative manipulation. Henry C K Liu writesthat the seduction of foreign capital was a "financial narcotic thatwould make the Opium War of 1840 look like a minor scrimmage."14In the 1990s, a number of Southeast Asian economies would find thisout to their peril ....

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Chapter 26POPPY FIELDS, OPIUM WARS,AND ASIAN TIGERS

Now it is well known that when there are many of these flowerstogether, their odor is so powerful that anyone who breathes it fallsasleep. And if the sleeper is not carried away from the scent of theflowers, he sleeps on and on forever.

- The Wonderful Wizard ofOz,"The Deadly Poppy Field"

The deadly poppy fields that captured Dorothy and the Lionwere an allusion to the nineteenth century Opium Wars, whichallowed the British to impose economic imperialism on China. TheChinese government, alarmed at the growing number of addicts inthe country, made opium illegal and tried to keep the British East IndiaCompany from selling it in the country. Britain then forced the issuemilitarily, acquiring Hong Kong in the process.

To the Japanese, it was an early lesson in the hazards of "freetrade." To avoid suffering the same fate themselves, they tightly sealedtheir own borders. When they opened their borders later, it was tothe United States rather than to Britain. The Japanese Meiji Revolutionof 1868 was guided by Japanese students of Henry Carey and theAmerican nationalists. It has been called an "American SystemRenaissance," and Yukichi Fukuzawa, its intellectual leader, has beencalled "the Benjamin Franklin of Japan." The feudal Japanese warlordswere overthrown and a modern central government was formed. Thenew government abolished the ownership of Japan's land by the feudalsamurai nobles and returned it to the nation, paying the nobles a sumof money in return.1

How was this massive buyout financed? President Ulysses S. Grantwarned against foreign borrowing when he visited Japan in 1879. He

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said, "Some nations like to lend money to poor nations very much. Bythis means they flaunt their authority, and cajole the poor nation.The purpose of lending money is to get political power for themselves."Great Britain had a policy of owning the central banks of the nationsit occupied, such as the Hongkong and Shanghai Bank in China. Toavoid that trap, Japan became the first nation in Asia to found its ownindependent state bank. The bank issued new fiat money which wasused to pay the samurai nobles. The nobles were then encouraged todeposit their money in the state bank and to put it to work creatingnew industries. Additional money was created by the government toaid the new industries. No expense was spared in the process of in-dustrialization. Money was issued in amounts that far exceeded an-nual tax receipts. The funds were, after all, just government credits -money that was internally generated, based on the credit of the gov-ernment rather than on debt to foreign lenders.2

The Japanese economic model that evolved in the twentieth centuryhas been called a "state-guided market system." The state determinesthe priorities and commissions the work, then hires private enterpriseto carry it out. The model overcame the defects of the communistsystem, which put ownership and control in the hands of the state.Chalmers Johnson, president of the Japan Policy Research Institute,wrote in 1989 that the closest thing to the Japanese model in the UnitedStates is the military/industrial complex. The government determinesthe programs and hires private companies to implement them. TheU.S. military/industrial complex is a form of state-sponsoredcapitalism that has produced one of the most lucrative and successfulindustries in the country.3 The Japanese model differs, however, inthat it achieved this result without the pretext of war. The Japanesemanaged to transform their warrior class into the country'sindustrialists, successfully shifting their focus to the peaceful businessof building the country and developing industry. The old feudalJapanese dynasties became the multinational Japanese corporationswe know today - Mitsubishi, Mitsui, Sumitomo, and so forth.

The Assault of the Wall Street Speculators

The Japanese state-guided market system was so effective andefficient that by the end of the 1980s, Japan was regarded as the leadingeconomic and banking power in the world. Its Ministry of InternationalTrade and Industry (MITI) played a heavy role in guiding national

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economic development. The model also proved highly successful inthe "Tiger" economies — South Korea, Malaysia and other East Asiancountries. East Asia was built up in the 1970s and 1980s by Japanesestate development aid, along with largely private investment and MITIsupport. When the Soviet Union collapsed, Japan proposed its modelfor the former communist economies, and many began looking to Japanand South Korea as viable alternatives to the U.S. free-market system.State-guided capitalism provided for the general welfare withoutdestroying capitalist incentive. Engdahl writes:

The Tiger economies were a major embarrassment to the IMFfree-market model. Their very success in blending privateenterprise with a strong state economic role was a threat to theIMF free-market agenda. So long as the Tigers appeared tosucceed with a model based on a strong state role, the formercommunist states and others could argue against taking theextreme IMF course. In east Asia during the 1980s, economicgrowth rates of 7-8 per cent per year, rising social security,universal education and a high worker productivity were allbacked by state guidance and planning, albeit in a marketeconomy - an Asian form of benevolent paternalism.4

High economic growth, rising social security, and universaleducation in a market economy - it was the sort of "Common Wealth"America's Founding Fathers had endorsed. But the model representeda major threat to the international bankers' system of debt-based moneyand IMF loans. To diffuse the threat, the Bank of Japan was pressuredby Washington to take measures that would increase the yen's valueagainst the dollar. The stated rationale was that this revaluation wasnecessary to reduce Japan's huge capital surplus (excess of exportsover imports). The Japanese Ministry of Finance countered that thesurplus, far from being a problem, was urgently required by a worldneeding hundreds of billions of dollars in railroad and other economicinfrastructure after the Cold War. But the Washington contingentprevailed, and Japan went along with the program. By 1987, theBank of Japan had cut interest rates to a low of 2.5 per cent. Theresult was a flood of "cheap" money that was turned into quick gainson the rising Tokyo stock market, producing an enormous stock marketbubble. When the Japanese government cautiously tried to deflate thebubble by raising interest rates, the Wall Street bankers went on theattack, using their new "derivative" tools to sell the market short andbring it crashing down. Engdahl writes:

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No sooner did Tokyo act to cool down the speculative fever,than the major Wall Street investment banks, led by MorganStanley and Salomon Bros., began using exotic new derivativesand financial instruments. Their intervention turned the orderlydecline of the Tokyo market into a near panic sell-off, as the WallStreet bankers made a killing on shorting Tokyo stocks in the process.Within months, Japanese stocks had lost nearly $5 trillion inpaper value.5

Japan, the "lead goose," had been seriously wounded. Washingtonofficials proclaimed the end of the "Japanese model" and turned theirattention to the flock of Tiger economies flying in formation behind.

Taking Down the Tiger Economies:The Asian Crisis of 1997

Until then, the East Asian countries had remained largely debt-free, avoiding reliance on IMF loans or foreign capital except for directinvestment in manufacturing plants, usually as part of a long-termnational goal. But that was before Washington began demandingthat the Tiger economies open their controlled financial markets tofree capital flows, supposedly in the interest of "level playing fields."Like Japan, the East Asian countries went along with the program.The institutional speculators then went on the attack, armed with asecret credit line from a group of international banks includingCitigroup.

They first targeted Thailand, gambling that it would be forced todevalue its currency and break from its peg to the dollar. Thailandcapitulated, its currency was floated, and it was forced to turn to theIMF for help. The other geese then followed one by one. ChalmersJohnson wrote in The Los Angeles Times in June 1999:

The funds easily raped Thailand, Indonesia and South Korea,then turned the shivering survivors over to the IMF, not to helpvictims, but to insure that no Western bank was stuck with non-performing loans in the devastated countries.6

Mark Weisbrot testified before Congress, "In this case the IMF notonly precipitated the financial crisis, it also prescribed policies thatsent the regional economy into a tailspin." The IMF had prescribedthe removal of capital controls, opening Asian markets to speculationby foreign investors, when what these countries really needed was a

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supply of foreign exchange reserves to defend themselves against specu-lative currency raids. At a meeting of regional finance ministers in1997, the government of Japan proposed an Asian Monetary Fund(AMF) that would provide the needed liquidity with fewer conditionsthan were imposed by the IMF. But the AMF, which would havedirectly competed with the IMF of the Western bankers, met withstrenuous objection from the U.S. Treasury and failed to materialize.Meanwhile, the IMF failed to provide the necessary reserves, whileinsisting on very high interest rates and "fiscal austerity." The resultwas a liquidity crisis (a lack of available money) that became a majorregional depression. Weisbrot testified:

The human cost of this depression has been staggering. Years ofeconomic and social progress are being negated, as theunemployed vie for jobs in sweatshops that they would havepreviously rejected, and the rural poor subsist on leaves, bark,and insects. In Indonesia, the majority of families now have amonthly income less than the amount that they would need tobuy a subsistence quantity of rice, and nearly 100 million people- half the population - are being pushed below the poverty line.7

In 1997, more than 100 billion dollars of Asia's hard currency re-serves were transferred in a matter of months into private financialhands. In the wake of the currency devaluations, real earnings andemployment plummeted virtually overnight. The result was masspoverty in countries that had previously been experiencing real eco-nomic and social progress. Indonesia was ordered by the IMF to un-peg its currency from the dollar barely three months before the dra-matic plunge of the rupiah, its national currency. In an article in Mon-etary Reform in the winter of 1998-99, Professor Michel Chossudovskywrote:

This manipulation of market forces by powerful actors constitutesa form of financial and economic warfare. No need to re-colonizelost territory or send in invading armies. In the late twentiethcentury, the outright "conquest of nations," meaning the controlover productive assets, labor, natural resources and institutions,can be carried out in an impersonal fashion from the corporateboardroom: commands are dispatched from a computer terminal,or a cell phone. Relevant data are instantly relayed to majorfinancial markets - often resulting in immediate disruptions inthe functioning of national economies. "Financial warfare" also

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Chapter 26 - Poppy Fields, Opium Wars, and Asian Tigers

applies complex speculative instruments including the gamut ofderivative trade, forward foreign exchange transactions, currencyoptions, hedge funds, index funds, etc. Speculative instrumentshave been used with the ultimate purpose of capturing financial wealthand acquiring control over productive assets.

Professor Chossudovsky quoted American billionaire Steve Forbes,who asked rhetorically:

Did the IMF help precipitate the crisis? This agency advocatesopenness and transparency for national economies, yet it rivalsthe CIA in cloaking its own operations. Did it, for instance,have secret conversations with Thailand, advocating thedevaluation that instantly set off the catastrophic chain of events?... Did IMF prescriptions exacerbate the illness? These countries'monies were knocked down to absurdly low levels.8

Chossudovsky warned that the Asian crisis marked the eliminationof national economic sovereignty and the dismantling of the BrettonWoods institutions safeguarding the stability of national economies.Nations no longer have the ability to control the creation of their ownmoney, which has been usurped by marauding foreign banks.9

Malaysia Fights Back

Most of the Asian geese succumbed to these tactics, but Malaysiastood its ground. Malaysian Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad saidthe IMF was using the financial crisis to enable giant internationalcorporations to take over Third World economies. He contended:

They see our troubles as a means to get us to accept certainregimes, to open our market to foreign companies to do businesswithout any conditions. [The IMF] says it will give you money ifyou open up your economy, but doing so will cause all our banks,companies and industries to belong to foreigners. . . .

They call for reform but this may result in millions thrownout of work. I told the top official of IMF that if companies wereto close, workers will be retrenched, but he said this didn't matteras bad companies must be closed. I told him the companiesbecame bad because of external factors, so you can't bankruptthem as it was not their fault. But the IMF wants the companiesto go bankrupt.10

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Web of Debt

Mahathir insisted that his government had not failed. Rather, ithad been victimized along with the rest of the region by the interna-tional system. He blamed the collapse of Asia's currencies on an or-chestrated attack by giant international hedge funds. Because theyprofited from relatively small differences in asset values, the specula-tors were prepared to create sudden, massive and uncontrollable out-flows of capital that would wreck national economies by causing capi-tal flight. He charged, "This deliberate devaluation of the currency ofa country by currency traders purely for profit is a serious denial ofthe rights of independent nations." Mahathir said he had appealed tothe international agencies to regulate currency trading to no avail, sohe had been forced to take matters into his own hands. He had im-posed capital and exchange controls, a policy aimed at shifting thefocus from catering to foreign capital to encouraging national devel-opment. He fixed the exchange rate of the ringgit (the Malaysian na-tional currency) and ordered that it be traded only in Malaysia. Thesemeasures did not affect genuine investors, he said, who could bring inforeign funds, convert them into ringgit for local investment, and ap-ply to the Central Bank to convert their ringgit back into foreign cur-rency as needed.

Western economists waited for the economic disaster they assumedwould follow; but capital controls actually helped to stabilize thesystem. Before controls were imposed, Malaysia's economy hadcontracted by 7.5 percent. The year afterwards, growth projectionswent as high as 5 percent. Joseph Stiglitz, chief economist for theWorld Bank, acknowledged in 1999 that the Bank had been "humbled"by Malaysia's performance. It was a tacit admission that the WorldBank's position had been wrong.11

David had stood up to Goliath, but the real threat to theinternational bankers was Malaysia's much more powerful neighborto the north. The Chinese Dragon was not only still standing; it wasbreathing fire ....

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Chapter 27WAKING THE SLEEPING GIANT:LINCOLN'S GREENBACK SYSTEMCOMES TO CHINA

The flowers had been too strong for the huge beast and he had givenup at last, falling only a short distance from the end of the poppy bed. . . . "We can do nothing for him," said the Tin Woodman sadly. "Heis much too heavy to lift. We must leave him here to sleep . . . ."

- The Wonderful Wizard ofOz,"The Deadly Poppy Field"

Napoleon called China a sleeping giant. "Let him sleep,"Napoleon said. "If he wakes, he will shake the world."China has now awakened and is indeed shaking the world. TheDragon has become so strong economically that it has been called thegreatest threat to national security the United States faces, accountingfor the greatest imbalance of any country in the U.S. trade budgetdeficit ($150 billion of $500 billion by 2004).1

This balance-of-trade problem is not new. The British were al-ready complaining of it in the early nineteenth century. Then theydiscovered that exporting opium from India to China could offset theirnegative trade balance and give them control of China's financial sys-tem at the same time. The Chinese Emperor responded by banningthe opium trade, after China started losing huge amounts of money toEngland. England then declared war, initiating the Opium War of1840. The Chinese people wound up with two sets of imperial rulers,the British as well as their own.2

The leader of the revolution that finally overthrew 2,000 years ofChinese imperial rule was Dr. Sun Yat-sen, now revered as the fatherof modern China by Nationalists and Communists alike. Like the

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leaders of the Japanese Meiji revolution of the 1860s, he was a protegeof a group of American nationalists of the Lincoln/Carey faction. Sun'sfundamental principles, known as the "Three Principles of the People,"were based on the concept presented by Lincoln in the GettysburgAddress: "government of the people, by the people, and for the people."Sun was educated in Hawaii, where he built up his revolutionaryorganization at the house of Frank Damon, the son of Reverand SamuelDamon, who had run the Hawaii delegation to the AmericanCentennial in Philadelphia in 1876. Frank Damon provided money,support and military training to Sun's organization; and Hawaiibecame its base for making a revolutionary movement in China.3

The Chinese Republic was proclaimed just before World War I.After Sun's death, the Nationalists lost control of mainland China tothe Chinese Communists, who founded the People's Republic of Chinain 1949; but the Communists retained much of the "American sys-tem" in creating their monetary scheme, which was a Chinese varia-tion of Lincoln's Greenback program. Before that, banknotes had beenissued by a variety of private banks. After 1949, these banknotes wererecalled and the renminbi (or "people's currency") became the solelegal currency, issued by the People's Bank of China, a wholly govern-ment-owned bank. The United States and other Western countriesimposed an embargo against China in the 1950s, blocking trade be-tween it and most of the rest of the world except the Soviet bloc. Chinathen adopted a Soviet-style centrally-planned economy; but after 1978,it pursued an open-door policy and was transformed from a centrally-planned economy back into a market economy.4 Private industry isnow flourishing in China, and privatization has been creeping into itsbanking system as well; but it still has government-owned banks thatcan issue national credit for domestic development.5

By 2004, China was leading the world in economic productivity,growing at 9 percent annually. In the first quarter of 2007, its economicgrowth was up to a remarkable 11.1 percent, with retail sales climbing15.3 percent. The commonly-held explanation for this impressivegrowth is that the Chinese are willing to work for what amounts toslave wages; but the starving poor of Africa, Indonesia, and LatinAmerica are equally willing, yet their economies are languishing.Something else distinguishes China, and one key difference is itsbanking system. China has a government-issued currency and asystem of national banks that are actually owned by the nation.6According to Wikipedia, the People's Bank of China is "unusual in

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acting as a national bank, focused on the country not on the currency."The notion of "national banking," as opposed to private "centralbanking," goes back to Lincoln, Carey and the American nationalists.Henry C K Liu distinguishes the two systems like this: a national bankserves the interests of the nation and its people. A central bank servesthe interests of private international finance. He writes:

A national bank does not seek independence from thegovernment. The independence of central banks is a euphemismfor a shift from institutional loyalty to national economic well-being toward institutional loyalty to the smooth functioning ofa global financial architecture ... [Today that means] the sacrificeof local economies in a financial food chain that feeds the issuerof US dollars. It is the monetary aspect of the predatory effectsof globalization.

Historically, the term "central bank" has been interchange-able with the term "national bank." . . . However, with theglobalization of financial markets in recent decades, a centralbank has become fundamentally different from a national bank.

The mandate of a national bank is to finance the sustainabledevelopment of the national economy .... [T]he mandate of a modern-day central bank is to safeguard the value of a nation's currency in aglobalized financial market . . . through economic recession andnegative growth if necessary. . . . [T]he best monetary policy in thecontext of central banking is . . . set by universal rules of pricestability, unaffected by the economic needs or politicalconsiderations of individual nations.7

In 1995, a Central Bank Law was passed in China granting cen-tral bank status to the People's Bank of China (PBoC), shifting thePBoC away from its previous role as a national bank. But Liu says theshift was in name more than in form:

It is safe to say that the PBoC still follows the policy directives ofthe Chinese government.... Unlike the Fed which has an arms-length relationship with the US Treasury, the PBoC managesthe State treasury as its fiscal agent. . . . Recent Chinese policyhas shifted back in populist directions to provide affirmativefinancial assistance to the poor and the undeveloped rural andinterior regions and to reverse blatant income disparity andeconomic and regional imbalances. It can be anticipated thatthis policy shift will raise questions in the capitalist West of thepolitical independence of the PBoC. Western neo-liberals will

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be predictably critical of the PBoC for directing money to wherethe country needs it most, rather than to that part of the economywhere bank profit would be highest.8

Besides its "populist" banking system, China is distinguished bykeeping itself free of the debt web of the IMF and the internationalbanking cartel; and by refusing to let its currency float, a policy thathas fended off the currency manipulations of international specula-tors. The value of the renminbi is kept pegged to the dollar; and un-like Mexico in the 1990s, China has such a huge store of dollar re-serves that it is impervious to the assaults of speculators. In 2005,China succumbed to Western pressure and raised its dollar peg slightly;but the renminbi continued to be pegged to its dollar counterpart, andthe government retained control of its value.

As in Hitler's Germany, the repression of human rights in Chinadeserves serious censure; but something in its economy is clearly work-ing, and to the extent that this is its self-contained monetary policy,the Chinese may have the nineteenth century American Nationaliststo thank, through their student Dr. Sun Yat-Sen.

The Mystery of Chinese Productivity

In the eighteenth century, Benjamin Franklin surprised his Britishlisteners with tales of the booming economy in the American colonies,something he credited to the new paper fiat money issued debt-free byprovincial governments. In a May 2005 article titled "The Mystery ofMr. Wu," Greg Grillot gave a modern-day variant of this story involv-ing a recent visit to China. He said he and a companion named Karimhad interviewed a retired architect named Mr. Wu on his standard ofliving. Mr. Wu was asked through an interpreter, "How has yourstandard of living changed in the last two decades?" The interpreterresponded, "Thirteen years ago, his pension was 250 yuan a month.Now it is 2,500 yuan. He recently had a cash offer to buy his home forUS$300,000, which he's lived in for 50 years." Karim remarked to hiscompanion, "Greg, something doesn't add up here. His pension shotup 900% in 13 years while inflation snoozed at 2-5% per annum. Howcould the government pay him that much more in such a short periodof time?" Grillot commented:

[T]he more you look around, the more you notice that no oneseems to know, or care, how so many people can produce somuch so cheaply . . . and sell it below production cost. How

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does the Chinese miracle work? Are the Chinese playing witheconomic fire? All over Beijing, you find people selling thingsfor less than they must have cost to make.

. . . Karim and I looked over the books of a Chinese steelcompany. Its year-over-year gross sales increased at a fine, steadyclip . . . but despite these increasing sales, its debt ascended a bitfaster than its sales. So its net profits slowly dwindled over time... . But it also looked like the company never pays down its debt.... If the Chinese aren't paying their debts. . . is there any limitto the amount of money the banks can lend? Just who are thesebanks, anyway?

Could this be the key? . . . In the land of the world's greatestcapitalists [meaning China], there's one business that isn't evenremotely governed by free markets: the banks. In the simplest terms,the banks and the government are one and the same. Like modernAmerican banks, the Chinese banks (read: the Chinesegovernment) freely loan money to fledgling and huge establishedbusinesses alike. But unlike modern American banks (most of them,anyway), the Chinese banks don't expect businesses to pay back themoney lent to them.

Evidently the secret of Chinese national banking is that the gov-ernment banks are not balancing their books! Grillot concluded that itwas a dangerous game:

[E]ven if it's a deliberate policy, an economy can't be deliberatelyinefficient in allocating capital. Things cost money. They cannot,typically, cost less than the value of the raw materials to makethem. The whole cannot be worth less than the sum of the parts.. . Some laws of economics . . . can be bent, but not broken ... atleast not without consequences."9

Benjamin Franklin's English listeners would no doubt have saidthe same thing about the innovative monetary scheme of the Americancolonies. Or could Professor Liu be right? Our entire economic worldview may need to be reordered, "just as physics was reordered whenwe realized that the earth is not stationary and is not the center of theuniverse."10

How the Chinese economy can function on credit that never getsrepaid may actually be no more mysterious than the workings of theU.S. economy, which carries $9 trillion in federal debt that nobodyever expects to see repaid. The Chinese government can print its ownmoney and doesn't need to go into debt. Before 1981, it had no federal

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debt at all; but when it opened to Western trade, it made a show ofconforming to Western practices. Advances of credit intended fornational development were re-characterized as "non-performingloans," rather like the English tallies that were re-characterized as"unfunded debt" at the end of the seventeenth century. As a result,today China does have a federal debt; but it remains substantiallysmaller than that of the United States.11 China can therefore afford tolet some struggling businesses carry perpetual debt on their booksinstead.

In both China and the United States, the money supply iscontinually being inflated; but the Chinese mechanism may be moreefficient, because it does a better job of recycling the money. The newmoney from Chinese loans that may or may not get repaid goes intothe pockets of laborers, increasing their wages and their pensions,giving them more money for producing and purchasing goods. Likein the early American colonies, China's newly-created money isincreasing the overall productivity of its economy and the standard ofliving of its people, promoting the general welfare by leavening thewhole loaf at once. In twenty-first century America, by contrast, theeconomy keeps growing mainly from "money making money." Theproceeds go into the pockets of investors who already have more thanthey can spend on consumer goods. American tax relief also tends togo to these non-producing investors, while American workers areheavily taxed. Meanwhile, the Chinese government is cutting the taxespaid by workers and raising their salaries, in an effort to encouragemore spending on cars and household appliances. The Chinesegovernment recently eliminated rural taxes altogether.12

Another Blow to the Quantity Theory of Money

In March 2006, the People's Bank of China reported that its M2money supply had increased by a whopping 18.8 percent from a yearearlier. Under classical economic theory, this explosive growth shouldhave crippled the economy with out-of-control price inflation; but itdidn't. By early 2007, price inflation in China was running at only 2to 3 percent. In 2006, China pushed past France and Great Britain tobecome the world's fourth largest economy, with domestic retail salesboosted by 13 percent and industrial production by 16.6 percent.13 Asnoted earlier, China has managed to keep the prices of its productslow for thousands of years, although its money supply has continually

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been flooded with new currency that has poured in to pay for thosecheap products.14 The "economic mystery" of China may be explainedby the Keynesian observation that when workers and raw materialsare available to increase productivity, adding money ("demand") doesnot increase prices; it increases goods and services. Supply keeps upwith demand, leaving prices unaffected.

We've seen that the usual trigger of hyperinflation is not a freelyflowing money supply but is the sudden devaluation of the currencyinduced by speculation in the currency market. China has so far man-aged to resist opening its currency to speculation; but Professor Liuwarns that it has been engaged in a dangerous flirtation with foreigninvestors, who are continually leaning on it to bring its policies in linewith the West's. China is "hoping to reap the euphoria of marketfundamentalism without succumbing to this narcotic addiction," Liuwrites, but "every addict begins with the confidence that he/ she canhandle the drug without falling into addiction."15 He observes:

After two and a half decades of economic reform toward neo-liberal market economy, China is still unable to accomplish ineconomic reconstruction what Nazi Germany managed in fouryears after coming to power, i.e., full employment with a vibranteconomy financed with sovereign credit without the need toexport, which would challenge that of Britain, the thensuperpower. This is because China made the mistake of relying onforeign investment instead of using its own sovereign credit. Thepenalty for China is that it has to export the resultant wealth to payfor the foreign capital it did not need in the first place. The resultafter more than two decades is that while China has become acreditor to the US to the tune of nearing China's own grossdomestic product (GDP), it continues to have to beg the US forinvestment capital.16

Liu's proposed solution to the international debt crisis is what hecalls "sovereign credit" and what Henry Carey called "national credit":sovereign nations should pay their debts in their own currencies, issuedby their own governments. Liu writes:

Sovereign debts in local currency usually do not carry any defaultrisk since the issuing government has the authority to issuemoney in domestic currency to repay its domestic debts. . . .[S]overeign debts' default risks are exclusively linked to foreign-currency debts and their impact on currency exchange rates.For this reason, any government that takes on foreign debt is recklessly

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exposing its economy to unnecessary risk from external sources.17

Although Liu says "the issuing government has the authority toissue money in domestic currency to repay its domestic debts," in theUnited States today, newly-created dollars are not issued by the U.S.Treasury. They originate with the privately-owned Federal Reserveor private commercial banks, which create the money in the form ofloans. Like those governments that "take on foreign debt," the U.S.government will therefore never be able to cure its mounting debt crisisunder the current system. The only way out may be the sort ofCopernican revolution envisioned by Professor Liu, a ChineseAmerican economist with his feet in two worlds.

The Dragon and the Eagle

Although China has been flirting with foreign capital investment,it has so far managed to retain the power to issue its own nationalcurrency. It has reportedly been using that sovereign power to printup renminbi and exchange them with Chinese companies for U.S.dollars, which are then used to buy U.S. securities, U.S. technology,and oil.18 Washington can hardly complain, because the Chinese havebeen instrumental in helping the U.S. government bankroll its debt.The Japanese have also engaged in these maneuvers, evidently withU.S. encouragement. (See Chapter 40.) The problem with fundingU.S. deficit spending with fiat money issued by foreign central banksis the leverage this affords America's competitors. According to aJanuary 2005 Asia Times article, "All Beijing has to do is to mentionthe possibility of a sell order going down the wires. It would devastatethe U.S. economy more than a nuclear strike."19 If someone is going to bebuying U.S. securities with money created with accounting entries, itshould be the U.S. government itself. Why this would actually be lessinflationary than what is going on now is discussed in Chapter 39.

Ironically, the Dragon has risen to challenge the Eagle's hegemonyby adopting a monetary scheme that was made in America. For theUnited States to get back the chips it has lost in the global casino, itmay need to return to its roots and adopt the financial cornerstone thebuilders rejected. It may need to do this for another reason: its debt-ridden economy could be on the brink of collapse. Like for Lincoln inthe 1860s, the only way out may be the Greenback solution. We'lllook at that challenge in Section IV, after considering one moreinteresting Asian phenomenon ....

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Chapter 28RECOVERING THE JEWELOF THE BRITISH EMPIRE:A PEOPLE'S MOVEMENTTAKES BACK INDIA

Of course the truck was a thousand times bigger than any of themice who were to draw it. But when all the mice had been harnessed,they were able to pull it quite easily.

- The Wonderful Wizard ofOz,"The Queen of the Field Mice"

India is a second sleeping giant that is shaking off its ancientslumber. Once called the jewel in the crown of the British Empire,it was the very symbol of imperialism. Today India and China togetherare called the twin engines of economic growth for the twenty-firstcentury. Combined, they represent two-fifths of the world'spopulation. Mahatma Gandhi unleashed the collective power of theIndian people in the 1940s, when he helped bring about the country'sindependence by leading a mass non-violent resistance movementagainst the British. India celebrated its freedom in 1947. But in thenext half century, the entrenched moneyed interests managed to regaintheir dominance by other means.

According to a PBS documentary called "Commanding Heights,"in the 1950s India was a Mecca for economists, who poured in fromall over the world to advise the Indian government on how to set upthe model economy. Their advice was generally that it should have astate-led model of industrial growth, in which the public or governmentsector would occupy the "commanding heights" of the economy.

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Gandhi's economic ideal was a simple India of self-sufficient villages;but Pandhit Nehru, the country's first prime minister, wanted toindustrialize and combine British parliamentary democracy withSoviet-style central planning. In the prototype that resulted, all areasof heavy industry - steel, coal, machine tools, capital goods - weregovernment-owned; but India added a democratically-electedgovernment with a Parliament and a prime minister. The countrybecame the model of economic development for newly independentnations everywhere, the leader for the Third World in planning,government ownership, and control.1

Helping to shape the economics of Nehru and his successor IndiraGandhi in the 1960s was celebrated American economist John Ken-neth Galbraith, who was appointed ambassador to India by PresidentJohn F. Kennedy. Galbraith believed that the government had an ac-tive role to play in stimulating the economy through public spending.He wrote and advised on public sector institutions and recommendedthe nationalization of banks, airlines and other industries. India's bankswere nationalized in 1969.

Disillusionment with the promise of Indian independence set in,however, as the private interests that had controlled colonial Indiacontinued to pull the strings of the new Indian State. In 1973, thecountry had a positive trade balance; but that was before OPEC enteredinto an agreement to sell oil only in U.S. dollars. In 1974, the price ofoil suddenly quadrupled. India had total foreign exchange reserves ofonly $629 million to pay an annual oil import bill of $1,241 million,almost double its available reserves. It therefore had to get U.S. dollars,and to do that it had to incur foreign debt and divert farming andother industry to products that would sell on foreign markets. In 1977,Indira Gandhi was forced into elections, in which key issues were theIMF and the domestic "austerity" measures the IMF invariably imposedin return for international loans. Indira was pushed out and wasreplaced with a regime friendlier to the globalist agenda. Engdahlwrites, "the heavy hand of Henry Kissinger was present ... in closecoordination with the British."2

India's recent economic history was detailed in a 2005 article by anon-partisan research group in Mumbai, India, called the ResearchUnit for Political Economy (R.U.P.E.). It states that India's developmentwas supposed to have been carried out free of powerful foreign anddomestic private interests; but the economy wound up tailored to thosevery interests, which the authors describe darkly as "large domestic

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and foreign capitalists; landlords and other feudal sections; big tradersand other parasitic forces." The government embarked on a policy ofengaging in investment by expanding external and internal debt. Loanmoney was accepted from the IMF even when there was no immediatecompulsion to do it. Annual economic growth increased, but it waslargely growth in the "unproductive" industries of finance anddefense. External debt ballooned from $19 billion in 1980, to $37 billionin 1985, to $84 billion in 1990, culminating in a balance of paymentscrisis in 1990-91 and a crippling IMF "structural adjustment" loan.After 1995, the policies advocated by the World Bank were reinforcedby the stringent requirements of the newly-formed World TradeOrganization. According to the R.U.P.E. group:

For the people at large the development of events has beendevastating. The relative stability of certain sections - middlepeasants, organised sector workers, educated employees andteachers - evaporated; and those whose existence was alreadyprecarious plummeted. It took time for people to arrive at theperception that what was happening was not merely a series ofindividual tragedies, but a broader social calamity linked toofficial policy. As they did so, they expressed their anger inwhatever way they could, generally by throwing out whicheverparty was in power ....

Yet the [new government] follows, indeed must follow,broadly the same policies as its predecessor. Any attempt toslow the pace is met with rebukes and pressure from imperialistcountries and the domestic corporate sector. Indeed, there is nolonger any need for them to intervene explicitly. With the last14 years of financial liberalisation, the country is nowenormously vulnerable to volatile capital flows. This fact alonewould rule out any serious populist exercise: for the resourcesrequired would have to be gathered either from increasedtaxation or from fiscal deficits, either of which would alienateforeign speculators and could precipitate a sudden outflow ofcapital.3

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Miracles for Investors, Poverty for Workers

Like other Third World countries, India has been caught in thetrap of accepting foreign loans and investment, making it vulnerableto sudden capital flows, subjecting it to the whims and wishes of foreignfinancial powers. Countries that have been lured into this trap havewound up seeking financial assistance from the IMF, which has thenimposed "austerity policies" as a condition of debt relief. Theseausterities include the elimination of food program subsidies, reductionof wages, increases in corporate profits, and privatization of publicindustry. All sorts of public assets go on the block - power companies,ports, airlines, railways, even social-welfare services. Canadian criticWayne Ellwood writes of this "privatization trap":

Dozens of countries and scores of public enterprises around theworld have been caught up in this frenzy, many with little choice.. . . [C]ountries forced to the wall by debt have been pushed intothe privatization trap by a combination of coercion andblackmail. . . . How much latitude do poor nations have to rejector shape adjustment policies? Virtually none. The right ofgovernments ... to make sovereign decisions on behalf of their citizens- the bottom line of democracy - is simply jettisoned.4

In theory, these structural adjustment programs also benefit localpopulations by enhancing the efficiency of local production, somethingthat supposedly happens as a result of exposure to internationalcompetition in investment and trade. But their real effect has beensimply to impose enormous hardships on the people. Food andtransportation subsidies, public sector layoffs, curbs on governmentspending, and higher interest and tax rates all hit the poordisproportionately hard.5 Helen Caldicott, M.D., co-founder ofPhysicians for Social Responsibility, writes:

Women tend to bear the brunt of these IMF policies, for theyspend more and more of their day digging in the fields by handto increase the production of luxury crops, with no machineryor modern equipment. It becomes their lot to help reduce theforeign debt, even though they never benefited from the loans inthe first place. . . . Most of the profits from commodity sales inthe Third World go to retailers, middlemen, and shareholders inthe First World.... UNICEF estimates that half a million childrendie each year because of the debt crisis.6

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Countries have been declared "economic miracles" even when theirpoverty levels have increased. The "miracle" is achieved through achange in statistical measures. The old measure, called the grossnational product or GNP, attributed profits to the country that receivedthe money. The GNP included the gross domestic product or GDP(the total value of the output, income and expenditure produced withina country's physical borders) plus income earned from investment orwork abroad. The new statistical measure looks simply at GDP. Profitsare attributed to the country where the factories, mines, or financialinstitutions are located, even if the profits do not benefit the countrybut go to wealthy owners abroad.7

In 1980, median income in the richest 10 percent of countries was77 times greater than in the poorest 10 percent. By 1999, that gap hadgrown to 122 times greater. In December 2006, the United Nationsreleased a report titled "World Distribution of Household Wealth,"which concluded that 50 percent of the world's population now ownsonly 1 percent of its wealth. The richest 1 percent own 40 percent of allglobal assets, with the 37 million people making up that 1 percent allhaving a net worth of $500,000 or more. The richest 10 percent ofadults own 85 percent of global wealth. Under current conditions,the debts of the poorer nations can never be repaid but will just con-tinue to grow. Today more money is flowing back to the First World in theform of debt service than is flowing out in the form of loans. By 2001,enough money had flowed back from the Third World to First Worldbanks to pay the principal due on the original loans six times over.But interest consumed so much of those payments that the total debtactually quadrupled during the same period.8

China and India: Ahead of the Pack

The statistics for most Third World countries are dismal, but Indiahas done better than most. China, which is politically still Communist,is technically part of the "Second World," but it too has had seriousstruggles with poverty. Advocates of the free-market approach relylargely on data from China and India to show that the approach isworking to reduce poverty, but as Christian Weller and Adam Hershwryly observed in a 2002 editorial:

[T]o use India and China as poster children for the IMF/WorldBank brand of liberalization is laughable. Both nations havesheltered their currencies from global speculative pressures (a serious

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sin, according to the IMF). Both have been highly protectionist(India has been a leader of the bloc of developing nations resistingWTO pressures for laissez-faire openness). And both have reliedheavily on state-led development and have opened to foreigncapital only with negotiated conditions.9

The declines in poverty in China and India occurred largely beforethe big strides in foreign trade and investment of the 1990s. Somethingelse has contributed to their economic resilience, and one likelycontributor is that both countries have succeeded in protecting theircurrencies from speculators. Both were largely insulated from theAsian crisis of the 1990s by their governments' refusal to open thenational currency to foreign speculation. In India, as in in China,private banking has made some inroads; but in 2006, 80 percent ofIndia's banks were still owned by the government.10 Governmentownership has not made these banks inefficient or uncompetitive. A2001 study of consumer satisfaction found that the State Bank of Indiaranked highest in all areas scored, beating both domestic and foreignprivate banks and financing institutions.11

A Country of Many States and Disparities

Differing assessments of how India is faring may be explained bythe fact that it is a very large country divided into many states, witheconomic policies that differ. In a June 2005 article in the LondonObserver, Greg Palast noted that in those Indian states where globalistfree trade policies have been imposed, workers have been reduced tosweatshop conditions due to murderous competition between workerswithout union protection. But these are not the states where Microsoftand Oracle are finding their highly-skilled computer talent. In thosestates, says Palast, the socialist welfare model is alive and thriving:

The computer wizards of Bangalore (in Karnataka state) andKerala are the products of fully funded state education systemswhere, unlike the USA, no child is left behind. A huge apparatusof state-owned or state-controlled industries, redistributionist taxsystems, subsidies of necessities from electricity to food, tightgovernment regulation and affirmative action programs for thelower castes are what has created these comfortable refuges forOracle and Microsoft.

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. . . What made this all possible was not capitalist competitivedrive (there was no corporate "entrepreneur" in sight), but thestate's investment in universal education and the village'scommitment to development of opportunity, not for a lucky few,but for the entire community. The village was 100% literate,100% unionized, and 100% committed to sharing resourcesthrough a sophisticated credit union finance system.12

Conditions are much different in the state of Andhra Pradesh,where farming has been the target of a "poverty eradication" pro-gram of the British government. Andhra Pradesh has the highestnumber of farmer suicides in India. These tragedies have generallyfollowed the amassing of unrepayable debts for expensive seeds andchemicals for export crops that did not produce the promised returns.An April 2005 article in the British journal Sustainable Economicstraced the problem to a project called "Vision 2020":

[T]he UK's Department for International Development (DFID)and World Bank were financing a project, Vision 2020 [which]aimed to transform the state to an export led, corporatecontrolled, industrial agriculture model that was thought likelyto displace up to 20 million people from the land by 2020. Therewere no ideas or planning for what such displaced millions wereto do and despite these fundamental and profound upheavalsin the food system, there had been little or no involvement ofsmall farmers and rural people in shaping this policy.

Vision 2020 was backed by a loan from the World Bank andwas to receive £100 million of UK aid, 60% of all DFID's aidbudget to India. . . . There were about 3000 farmer suicides inAndhra Pradesh in the 4 years prior to the May 2004 electionand since the election there have been 1300 further suicides.13

Vendana Shiva, one of the article's co-authors, later put the num-ber of farmer suicides at 150,000 in the decade before 2006.14 Shivaand co-authors noted that India's farmers, who make up 70 percentof the population, voted out the existing coalition government in May2004; but the new leaders too had to take their marching orders fromthe World Bank, the World Trade Organization (WTO) and multina-tional corporations. They observed that a growing number of lawsand policies are being pushed through the legislature that threaten torob the poor of their seeds, their food, their health and their liveli-hoods, including:

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• A new patent ordinance that introduces product patents on seedsand medicines, putting them beyond people's reach. Prices in-crease 10- to 100-fold under patent monopolies. Since India is alsothe source of low-cost generic medicines for Africa, the introduc-tion of patent monopolies in India is likely to increase debt andpoverty globally.

• New policies for water privatization have been introduced, includ-ing privatization of Delhi's water supply, pushing water tariffs upby 10 to 15 times. The policies threaten to deprive the poor of theirfundamental right to water, diverting scarce incomes to pay wa-ter bills that are 10 times higher than needed to cover the cost ofoperations and maintenance.

• The removal of regulations on prices and volumes, allowing giantcorporations to set up private markets, destroying local marketsand local production. India produces thousands of crops on mil-lions of farms, while agribusiness trades in only a handful of com-modities. Their new central role in much less regulated Indianmarkets is likely to result in destruction of diversity and displace-ment of small producers and traders.

India's poor, however, are not taking all this lying down. FollowingGandhi's example of mass non-cooperation with oppressive Britishlaws, they have organized a nation-wide movement against the patentordinance. Communities are creating "freedom zones" to protectthemselves from corporate invasion in areas such as geneticallymodified seeds, pesticides, unfair contracts, and monopolistic markets.The grassroots movement has called for a rethinking of GATT (theGeneral Agreement on Tariffs and Trade), which led to the creation ofthe WTO in 1995. The WTO requires the laws of every member toconform to its own and has the power to enforce compliance byimposing sanctions.15

The WTO and the NWO

The United States is also a member of the WTO. Critics warn thatAmericans could soon be seeing international troops in their ownstreets. The "New World Order" that was heralded at the end of theCold War was supposed to be a harmonious global village withoutrestrictions on trade and with cooperative policing of drug-trafficking,

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terrorism and arms controls. But to the wary, it is the road to a one-world government headed by transnational corporations, oppressingthe public through military means and restricting individual freedoms.Bob Djurdjevic, writing in the paleoconservative journal Chroniclesin 1998, compared the NWO to the old British empire:

Parallels between the British Empire and the New WorldOrder Empire are striking. It's just that the British crown reliedon brute force to achieve its objectives, while the NWO elitemostly use financial terrorism . . . The British Empire was builtby colonizing other countries, seizing their natural resources,and shipping them to England to feed the British industrialists'factories. In the wake of the "red coats" invasions, local cultureswere often trampled and replaced by a "more progressive" Britishway of life.

The Wall Street-dominated NWO Empire is being built bycolonizing other countries with foreign loans or investments.When the fish is firmly on the hook, the NWO financial terroristspull the plug, leaving the unsuspecting victim high and dry. Andbegging to be rescued. In comes the International MonetaryFund (IMF). Its bailout recipes - privatization, tradeliberalization and other austerity reforms - amount to seizingthe target countries' natural and other resources, and turningthem over to the NWO elites - just as surely as the British Empiredid by using cruder methods.16

Americans tend to identify with these Wall Street banks andtransnational corporations because they have U.S. addresses, butDjurdjevic warns that the international cartels do not necessarily haveour best interests in mind. To the contrary, Main Street Americaappears to be their next takeover target ....

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Section IV

THE DEBT SPIDERCAPTURES AMERICA

"We are all threatened," answered the tiger, "by a fierce enemywhich has lately come into this forest. It is a most tremendous monster,like a great spider, with a body as big as an elephant and legs as longas a tree trunk. ... [A]s the monster crawls through the forest he seizesan animal with a leg and drags it to his mouth, where he eats it as aspider does a fly. Not one of us is safe while this fierce creature is alive."

- The Wonderful Wizard ofOz,"The Lion Becomes the King of Beasts"

Chapter 29BREAKING THE BACK OFTHE TIN MAN:DEBT SERFDOM FORAMERICAN WORKERS

"I worked harder than ever; but I little knew how cruel my enemycould be. She made my axe slip again, so that it cut right through mybody."

- The Wonderful Wizard ofOz,"The Rescue of the Tin Woodman"

The mighty United States has been in the banking spider'ssights for more than two centuries. This ultimate prize toomay finally have been captured in the spider's web, choked in debtspun out of thin air. The U.S. has now surpassed even Third Worldcountries in its debt level. By 2004, the debt of the U.S. governmenthad hit $7.6 trillion, more than three times that of all Third Worldcountries combined. Like the bankrupt consumer who stays afloat bymaking the minimum payment on his credit card, the governmenthas avoided bankruptcy by paying just the interest on its monster debt;but Comptroller General David M. Walker warns that by 2009 thecountry may not be able to afford even that mounting bill. When thegovernment cannot service its debt, it will have to declare bankruptcy,and the economy will collapse.1

Al Martin is a retired naval intelligence officer, former contributorto the Presidential Council of Economic Advisors, and author of aweekly newsletter called "Behind the Scenes in the Beltway." He ob-served in an April 2005 newsletter that the ratio of total U.S. debt togross domestic product (GDP) rose from 78 percent in 2000 to 308percent in April 2005. The International Monetary Fund considers a

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nation-state with a total debt-to-GDP ratio of 200 percent or more tobe a "de-constructed Third World nation-state." Martin wrote:

What "de-constructed" actually means is that a political regimein that country, or series of political regimes, have, through along period of fraud, abuse, graft, corruption andmismanagement, effectively collapsed the economy of thatcountry.2

Other commentators warn that the "shock therapy" tested in ThirdWorld countries is the next step planned for the United States.Editorialist Mike Whitney wrote in CounterPunch in April 2005:

[T]he towering national debt coupled with the staggering tradedeficits have put the nation on a precipice and a seismic shift inthe fortunes of middle-class Americans is looking more likely allthe time. . . . The country has been intentionally plundered andwill eventually wind up in the hands of its creditors .... Thissame Ponzi scheme has been carried out repeatedly by the IMFand World Bank throughout the world .... Bankruptcy is a fairlystraightforward way of delivering valuable public assets and resourcesto collaborative industries, and of annihilating national sovereignty.After a nation is successfully driven to destitution, public policydecisions are made by creditors and not by representatives of thepeople. . . . The catastrophe that middle class Americans face iswhat these elites breezily refer to as "shock therapy"; a suddenjolt, followed by fundamental changes to the system. In thenear future we can expect tax reform, fiscal discipline,deregulation, free capital flows, lowered tariffs, reduced publicservices, and privatization.3

Catherine Austin Fitts was formerly the managing director of aWall Street investment bank and was Assistant Secretary of the De-partment of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) under Presi-dent George Bush Sr. She calls what is happening to the economy "acriminal leveraged buyout of America," something she defines as "buy-ing a country for cheap with its own money and then jacking up therents and fees to steal the rest." She also calls it the "American Tape-worm" model:

[T]he American Tapeworm model is to simply finance the federaldeficit through warfare, currency exports, Treasury and federalcredit borrowing and cutbacks in domestic "discretionary"spending. . . . This will then place local municipalities and local

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Share of capital income earned by top 1 % and bottom 80%,1979-2003 (Shapiro & Friedman, 20064)

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leadership in a highly vulnerable position - one that will allowthem to be persuaded with bogus but high-minded soundingarguments to further cut resources. Then, to "preserve bondratings and the rights of creditors," our leaders can be persuadedto sell our water, natural resources and infrastructure assets atsignificant discounts of their true value to global investors. . . .This will all be described as a plan to "save America" byrecapitalizing it on a sound financial footing. In fact, this processwill simply shift more capital continuously from America to othercontinents and from the lower and middle classes to elites.5

The Destruction of the Great American Middle Class

In 1894, Jacob Coxey warned of the destruction of the greatAmerican middle class. That prediction is rapidly materializing, as thegap between rich and poor grows ever wider. The Federal Reservereported in 2004 that:

• The wealthiest 1 percent of Americans held 33.4 percent of thenation's wealth, up from 30.1 percent in 1989; while the top 5percent held 55.5 percent of the wealth.

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• The poorest 50 percent of the population held only 2.5 percent ofthe wealth, down from 3.0 percent in 1989.

• The very wealthiest 1 percent of Americans owned a bigger pieceof the pie (33.4 percent) than the poorest 90 percent (30.4 percentof the pie). They also owned 62.3 percent of the nation's businessassets.

• The wealthiest 5 percent owned 93.7 percent of the value of bonds,71.7 percent of nonresidential real estate, and 79.1 percent of thenation's stocks.6

Forbes Magazine reported that from 1997 to 1999, the wealth ofthe 400 richest Americans grew by an average of $940 million each,for a daily increase of $1.3 million per person.7 Note that lists of thissort do not include the world's truly richest families, including theRothschilds, the Warburgs, and a long list of royal families. Whetherthey consider it to be in bad taste or because they fear retribution fromthe bottom of the wealth pyramid, the super-elite do not make theirfortunes public.

Debt Peonage: Eroding the Protection of the Bankruptcy Laws

While the super-rich are amassing fortunes rivaling the economiesof small countries, Americans in the lower brackets are struggling withfood and medical bills. Personal bankruptcy filings more than doubledfrom 1995 to 2005. In 2004, more than 1.1 million consumers filed forbankruptcy under Chapter 7. A Chapter 7 bankruptcy stays on thedebtor's credit record for ten years from the date of filing, but at leastit wipes the slate clean. In 2005, however, even that escape was takenaway for many debtors. Under sweeping new provisions to theBankruptcy Code, many more people are now required to file underChapter 13, which does not eliminate debts but mandates that they berepaid under a court-ordered payment schedule over a three to fiveyear period.

Homestead exemptions have traditionally protected homes fromforeclosure in bankruptcy; but not all states have them, and the statutesusually preserve only a fraction of the home's worth. Worse, the newbankruptcy provisions require home ownership for a minimum of 40months to qualify for the exemption. That means that if you file forbankruptcy within 3.3 years of purchase, your home is no longer off

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limits to creditors.8 In the extreme case, the homeowner could not justlose his home but could owe a "deficiency," or balance due, forwhatever the creditor bank failed to get from resale. This balancecould be taken from the debtor's paychecks over a five-year period. Insome states, "anti-deficiency" laws prevent this, allowing the purchaserto walk away without paying the balance owed. But again not allstates have them, and they apply only to the original mortgage on thehome. If the buyer takes out a second mortgage or takes equity out ofthe home, anti-deficiency laws may not apply. The push to persuadehomeowners to take out home equity loans recalls the 1920s campaignto persuade people to borrow against their homes to invest in the stockmarket. When the stock market crashed, their homes became theproperty of the banks. Elderly people burdened with medical anddrug bills are particularly susceptible to those tactics today.

Another insidious change that has been made in the bankruptcylaws pertains to insolvent corporations. The law originally providedfor the appointment of an independent bankruptcy trustee, whose jobwas to try to keep the business running and preserve the jobs of theworkers. In the 1970s, the law was changed so that the plan ofbankruptcy reorganization would be designed by the banks that werefinancing the restructuring. The creditors now came first and theworkers had to take what was left. The downsizing of the airlineindustry, the steel industry, and the auto industry followed,precipitating masses of worker layoffs.9

Normally, it would fall to the individual States to provide a safetynet for their citizens from personal disasters of this sort, but the Stateshave been driven to the brink of bankruptcy as well. Diversion ofState funds to out-of-control federal spending has left States with bud-get crises that have forced them to take belt-tightening measures likethose seen in Third World countries. Social services have been cut forthose most in need during an economic downturn, including servicesfor childcare, health insurance, income support, job training programsand education. Social services are "discretionary" budget items, whichhave been sacrificed to the fixed-interest income of the creditors whoare first in line to get paid.10

Billionaire philanthropist Warren Buffett has warned that America,rather than being an "ownership society," is fast becoming a"sharecroppers' society." Paul Krugman suggested in a 2005 NewYork Times editorial that the correct term is "debt peonage" society,the system prevalent in the post-Civil War South, when debtors were

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forced to work for their creditors. American corporations are assuredof cheap, non-mobile labor of the sort found in Third World countriesby a medical insurance system and other benefits tied to employment.People dare not quit their jobs, however unsatisfactory, for fear offacing medical catastrophes without insurance, particularly now thatthe escape hatch of bankruptcy has narrowed substantially. Mostpersonal bankruptcies are the result of medical emergencies and othersevere misfortunes such as job loss or divorce. The Bankruptcy ReformAct of 2005 eroded the protection the government once providedagainst these unexpected catastrophes, ensuring that working peopleare kept on a treadmill of personal debt. Meanwhile, loopholes allowingvery wealthy people and corporations to go bankrupt and to shieldtheir assets from creditors remain intact.11

Graft and Greed in the Credit Card Business

The 2005 bankruptcy bill was written by and for credit cardcompanies. Credit card debt reached $735 billion by 2003, more than11 times the tab in 1980. Approximately 60 percent of credit cardusers do not pay off their monthly balances; and among those users,the average debt carried on their cards is close to $12,000. This "sub-prime" market is actually targeted by banks and credit card companies,which count on the poor, the working poor and the financiallystrapped to not be able to make their payments. According to a 2003book titled The Two-Income Trap by Warren and Tyagi:

More than 75 percent of credit card profits come from peoplewho make those low, minimum monthly payments. And whomakes minimum monthly payments at 26 percent interest? Whopays late fees, over-balance charges, and cash advancepremiums? Families that can barely make ends meet, householdsprecariously balanced between financial survival and completecollapse. These are the families that are singled out by the lendingindustry, barraged with special offers, personalizedadvertisements, and home phone calls, all with one objective inmind: get them to borrow more money.

"Payday" lender operations offering small "paycheck advance"loans have mushroomed. Particularly popular in poor and minoritycommunities, they can carry usurious interest rates as high as 500percent. The debt crisis has been blamed on the imprudent spendinghabits of people buying frivolous things; but Warren and Tyagi ob-

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serve that two-income families are actually spending 21 percent lesson clothing, 22 percent less on food, and 44 percent less on appli-ances than one-income families spent a generation earlier. The rea-son is that they are spending substantially more on soaring housingprices and medical costs.12

In 2003, the average family was spending 69 percent more onhome mortgage payments in inflation-adjusted dollars than theirparents spent a generation earlier, and 61 percent more on healthneeds. At the same time, real wages had stagnated or declined. Mostpeople were struggling to get by with less; and in order to get by,many turned to credit cards to pay for basic necessities. Credit cardcompanies and their affiliated banks capitalize on the extremity ofpoor and working-class people by using high-pressure tactics to signup borrowers they know can't afford their loans, then jacking upinterest rates or forcing customers to buy "insurance" on the loans.13People who can make only minimal payments on their credit cardbills wind up in "debt peonage" to the banks. The scenario recalls thesinister observation made in the Hazard Circular circulated duringthe American Civil War:

[Sjlavery is but the owning of labor and carries with it the careof the laborers, while the European plan, led by England, is thatcapital shall control labor by controlling wages. This can be done bycontrolling the money. The great debt that capitalists will see to itis made out of the war, must be used as a means to control thevolume of money.

The slaves kept in the pre-Civil War South had to be fed and caredfor. People enslaved by debt must feed and house themselves.

Usurious Loans of Phantom Money

The ostensible justification for allowing lenders to charge whateverinterest the market will bear is that it recognizes the time value ofmoney. Lenders are said to be entitled to this fee in return for foregoingthe use of their money for a period of time. That argument mighthave some merit if the lenders actually were lending their own money,but in the case of credit card and other commercial bank debt, theyaren't. They aren't even lending their depositors' money. They are lendingnothing but the borrower's own credit. We know this because of whatthe Chicago Fed said in "Modern Money Mechanics":

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Chapter 29 - Breaking the Back of the Tin Man

Of course, [banks] do not really pay out loans from the moneythey receive as deposits. If they did this, no additional moneywould be created. What they do when they make loans is to acceptpromissory notes in exchange for credits to the borrowers' transactionaccounts. Loans (assets) and deposits (liabilities) both rise [bythe same amount].14

Here is how the credit card scheme works: when you sign amerchant's credit card charge slip, you are creating a "negotiableinstrument." A negotiable instrument is anything that is signed andconvertible into money or that can be used as money. The merchanttakes this negotiable instrument and deposits it into his merchant'schecking account, a special account required of all businesses thataccept credit. The account goes up by the amount on the slip,indicating that the merchant has been paid. The charge slip isforwarded to the credit card company (Visa, MasterCard, etc.), whichbundles your charges and sends them to a bank. The bank then sendsyou a statement, which you pay with a check, causing your transactionaccount to be debited at your bank. At no point has a bank lent youits money or its depositors' money. Rather, your charge slip (anegotiable instrument) has become an "asset" against which credithas been advanced. The bank has done nothing but monetize yourown I.O.U. or promise to repay.15

When you lend someone your own money, your assets go down bythe amount that the borrower's assets go up. But when a bank lendsyou money, its assets go up. Its liabilities also go up, since its depositsare counted as liabilities; but the money isn't really there. It is simply aliability - something that is owed back to the depositor. The bankturns your promise to pay into an asset and a liability at the sametime, balancing its books without actually transferring any pre-exist-ing money to you.

The spiraling debt trap that has subjected financially-strappedpeople to usurious interest charges for the use of something the lendersnever had to lend is a fraud on the borrowers. In 2006, profits tolenders from interest charges and late fees on U.S. credit card debtcame to $90 billion. An alternative for retaining the benefits of thecredit card system without feeding a parasitic class of unnecessarymiddlemen is suggested in Chapter 41.

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Chapter 30THE LURE IN THECONSUMER DEBT TRAP:THE ILLUSION OFHOME OWNERSHIP

"There's no place like home, there's no place like home, there's noplace like home . . . ."

If the bait that caught Third World countries in the bankers'debt web was the promise of foreign loans and investment, forAmericans in the twenty-first century it is the lure of home ownershipand the promise of ready cash from home equity loans. Increasedrates of home ownership have been cited as a bright spot for labor inan economy in which workers continue to struggle. In 2004, homeownership was touted as being at all-time highs, hitting nearly 69percent that year.1 The figure, however, was highly misleading. Sixty-nine percent of individuals obviously did not own their own homes.The figure applied only to "households." And while legal title mightbe in the name of the buyer, the home wasn't really "owned" by thehousehold until the mortgage was paid off. Only 40 percent of homeswere owned "free and clear," and that figure included propertiesowned as second homes, as vacation homes, and by landlords whorented the property out to non-homeowners. Even homes that wereat one time owned free and clear could have mortgages on them,after the owners were lured by lenders into taking cash out throughhome equity loans. As a result of refinancing and residential mobil-ity, most mortgages on single-family properties today are less thanfour years old, which means they have a long way to go before theyare paid off.2 And if the mortgages are less than 3.3 years old, thehomes are not subject to the homestead exemption and can be takenby the banks even if the strapped debtors file for bankruptcy.

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The touted increase in "homeownership" actually means an in-crease in debt. Households todayowe more debt relative to their dis-posable income than ever before.In late 2004, mortgage debtamounted to 85 percent of dispos-able income, a record high. Thefact that interest rates approachedhistoric lows appeared to keeppayments manageable, but thetotal amount of debt rose faster forthe typical family than interestrates declined. As a result, house-holds still ended up paying agreater share of their incomes fortheir mortgages. Total U.S. mortgage debt increased by over 80 per-cent between 1991 and 2001, and residential debt grew another 50percent between 2001 and 2005. From 2001 through 2005, outstand-ing mortgage debt rose from $5.3 trillion to $8.9 trillion, the biggestdebt expansion in history. In 2004, U.S. household debt increasedmore than twice as fast as disposable income; and most of this newdebt-money came from the housing market. Homeowners took eq-uity out of their homes through home sales, refinancings and homeequity loans totaling about $700 billion in 2004, more than twice the$266 billion taken five years earlier. Debts due to residential mort-gages exceeded $8.1 trillion, a sum larger even than the out-of-controlfederal debt, which hit $7.6 trillion the same year.3

Baiting the Trap: Seductively Low Interest Ratesand "Teaser Rates"

The housing bubble was another ploy of the Federal Reserve andthe banking industry for pumping accounting-entry money into theeconomy. In the 1980s, the Fed reacted to a stock market crisis bylowering interest rates, making investment money readily available,inflating the stock market to unprecedented heights in the 1990s. Whenthe stock market topped out in 2000 and started downward, the Fedcould have allowed it to correct naturally; but that alternative waspolitically unpopular, and it would have meant serious losses to the

Household Debt Ratio

Grandfather Economic Reportshttp: //tnvvtiodges .home.att .netfdata Fed Reserve

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banks that owned the Fed. The decision was made instead to prop upthe market with even lower interest rates. The federal funds rate wasdropped to 1.0 percent, launching a credit expansion that was evengreater than in the 1990s, encouraging further speculation in bothstocks and real estate.4

After the Fed set the stage, banks and other commercial lendersfanned the housing boom into a blaze with a series of high-risk changesin mortgage instruments, including variable rate loans that allowednearly anyone to qualify to buy a home who was willing to take thebait. By 2006, about half of all U.S. mortgages were at "adjustable"interest rates. Purchasers were lulled by "teaser" rates into believingthey could afford mortgages that in fact were liable to propel theminto inextricable debt if not into bankruptcy. Property values hadgotten so high that the only way many young couples could evenhope to become homeowners was to agree to an adjustable rate mort-gage or ARM, a very risky type of mortgage loan in which the interestrate and payments fluctuate with market conditions. The risks ofARMs were explained in a December 2005 press release by the Officeof the Comptroller of the Currency:

[T]he initial lower monthly payment means that less principal isbeing paid. As a result, the loan balance grows, or amortizesnegatively until the sixth year when payments are adjusted toensure the principal is paid off over the remaining 25 years ofthe loan. In the case of a typical $360,000 payment optionmortgage that starts at 6 percent interest, monthly payments couldincrease by 50 percent in the sixth year if interest rates do not change.If rates jump two percentage points, to 8 percent, monthly paymentscould double.5

Homeowners agreeing to this arrangement were gambling thateither their incomes would increase to meet the payment burden orthat the housing market would continue to go up, allowing them tosell the home before the sixth year at a profit. But by 2006, the housingbubble was topping out; and as in every Ponzi scheme, the vulnerablebuyers who got in last would be left holding the bag when the bubblecollapsed.

Even borrowers with fixed rate mortgages can wind up payingquite a bit more than they anticipated for their homes. Loans arestructured so that the borrower who agrees to a 30-year mortgage at afixed rate of 7 percent will actually pay about 2-1/2 times the list priceof the house over the course of the loan. A house priced at $330,000

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at 7 percent interest would accrue $460,379.36 in interest, for a totaltab of $790,379.36.6 The bank thus actually gets a bigger chunk of thepie than the seller, although it never owned either the property or theloan money, which was created as it was lent; and home loans arecompletely secured, so the risk to the bank is very low. The buyer willpay about 2-1 / 2 times the list price to borrow money the bank neverhad until the mortgage was signed; and if he fails to pay the full 250percent, the bank may wind up with the house.

For the first five years of a thirty-year home mortgage, most of thebuyer's monthly payments consist of interest. For ARMs, the loansmay be structured so that the first five years' payments consist only ofinterest, with a variable-rate loan thereafter. Since most homes changehands within five years, the average buyer who thinks he owns hisown home finds on resale that most if not all of the equity still belongsto the lender. If interest rates have gone up in the meantime, homevalues will drop, and the buyer will be locked into higher paymentsfor a less valuable house. If he has taken out a home loan for "equity"that has subsequently disappeared, he may have to pay the differenceon sale of the home. And if he can't afford that balloon payment, hewill be reduced to home serfdom, strapped in a home he can't afford,working to make his payments to the bank. William Hope Harvey'sdire prediction that workers would become wage-slaves who ownednothing of their own would have materialized.

The Homestead Laws that gave settlers their own plot of land havebeen largely eroded by 150 years of the "business cycle," in whichbankers have periodically raised interest rates and called in loans, cre-ating successive waves of defaults and foreclosures. For most fami-lies, the days of inheriting the family home free and clear are a thingof the past. Some individual homeowners have made out well fromthe housing boom, but the overall effect has been to put the averagefamily on the hook for a substantially more expensive mortgage thanit would have had a decade ago. Again the real winners have beenthe banks. As market commentator Craig Harris explained in a March2004 article:

Essentially what has happened is that there was a sort of stealthtransfer of net worth from the public to the banks to help savethe system. The public took on the risk, went further into debt,spent a lot of money . . . and the banks' new properties haveappreciated substantially. . . . They created the money and lentit to you, you spent the money to prop up the economy, and

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now they own the real property and you're on the hook to paythem back an inflated price [for] that property . . . They gaveyou a better rate but you paid more for the property which theynow own until you pay them back.7

The Impending Tsunami of Sub-prime Mortgage Defaults

The larger a pyramid scheme grows, the greater thenumber of investors who need to be brought in to support the pyramid.When the "prime" market was exhausted, lenders had to resort to theriskier "sub-prime" market for new borrowers. Risk was off-loadedby slicing up these mortgages and selling them to investors as"mortgage-backed securities." "Securitizing" mortgages and sellingthem to investors was touted as "spreading the risk," but the devicebackfired. It wound up spreading risk like a contagion, infectinginvestment pools ranging from hedge funds to pension funds to moneymarket funds.

In a November 2005 article called "Surreal Estate on the SanAndreas Fault," Gary North estimated that loans related to the housingmarket had grown to 80 percent of bank lending, and that much ofthis growth was in the sub-prime market, which had been hookedwith ARMs that were quite risky not only for the borrowers but forthe lenders. North said prophetically:

. . . Even without a recession, the [housing] boom will falterbecause of ARMs .... These time bombs are about to blow,contract by contract.

If nothing changes — if short-term rates do not rise — monthlymortgage payments are going to rise by 60% when the readjustmentkicks in. Yet buyers are marginal, people who could not qualifyfor a 30-year mortgage. This will force "For Sale" signs to flowerlike dandelions in spring. . . .

If you remember the S&L [savings and loan association] crisisof the mid-1980s, you have some indication of what is coming.The S&L crisis in Texas put a squeeze on the economy in Texas.Banks got nasty. They stopped making new loans. Yet the S&Lswere legally not banks. They were a second capital market.Today, the banks have become S&Ls. They have tied their loanportfolios to the housing market.

I think a squeeze is coming that will affect the entire bankingsystem. The madness of bankers has become unprecedented. . .

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Chapter 30 - The Lure In The Consumer Debt Trap

Banks will wind up sitting on top of bad loans of all kinds becausethe American economy is now housing-sale driven.8

The savings and loan industry collapsed after interest rates wereraised to unprecedented levels in the 1980s. The commercial banks'prime rate (the rate at which they had to borrow) reached 20.5 percentat a time when the S&Ls were earning only about 5 percent onmortgage loans made previously, and the negative spread caused themhuge losses. Although banks in recent years have off-loaded mortgagesby selling them to investors, the banks may still be liable in the event ofdefault; and even if they're not, they could find themselves defendingsome very large lawsuits, as we'll see shortly. The banks themselvesare also heavily invested in securities infected with subprime debt.

By January 2007, the housing boom had substantially cooled, aftera series of interest rate hikes were imposed by the Fed. An article inThe New York Times that month warned,"l in 5 sub-prime loans willend in foreclosure .... About 2.2 million borrowers who took out sub-prime loans from 1998 to 2006 are likely to lose their homes." In aneditorial the same month, Mike Whitney noted that when familymembers and other occupants are included, that could mean 10 millionpeople turned out into the streets; and some analysts thought eventhat estimate was low. Whitney quoted Peter Schiff, president of aninvestment strategies company, who warned, "The secondary effectsof the '1 out of 5' sub-prime default rate will be a chain reaction ofrising interest rates and falling home prices engendering still moredefaults, with the added foreclosures causing the cycle to repeat. Inmy opinion, when the cycle is fully played out we are more likely tosee an 80% default rate rather than 20%." Whitney commented:

40 million Americans headed towards foreclosure? Better pickout a comfy spot in the local park to set up the lean-to. Schiff'scalculations may be overly pessimistic, but his reasoning is sound.Once mortgage-holders realize that their homes are worth tensof thousands less than the amount of their loan they are likely to"mail in their house keys rather than make the additionalmortgage payments." As Schiff says, "Why would anyonestretch to spend 40% of his monthly income to service a $700,000mortgage on a condo valued at $500,000, especially when thereare plenty of comparable rentals that are far more affordable?"9

As with the Crash of 1929, the finger of responsibility is beingpointed at the Federal Reserve, which blew up the housing bubblewith "easy" credit, then put a pin in it by making credit much harder

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to get. Whitney writes:

[The Fed] kept the printing presses whirring along at full-tiltwhile the banks and mortgage lenders devised every scamimaginable to put greenbacks into the hands of unqualifiedborrowers. ARMs, "interest-only" or "no down payment" loansetc. were all part of the creative financing boondoggle whichkept the economy sputtering along after the "dot.com" crackupin 2000.

... Now, many of those same buyers are stuck with enormousloans that are about to reset at drastically higher rates whiletheir homes have already depreciated 10% to 20% in value. Thisphenomenon of being shackled to a "negative equity mortgage"is what economist Michael Hudson calls the "New Road toSerfdom"; paying off a mortgage that is significantly larger thanthe current value of the house. The sheer magnitude of theproblem is staggering.

The ability to adjust interest rates is considered a necessary andproper tool of the Fed in managing the money supply, but it is also aform of arbitrary manipulation that can be used to benefit one groupover another. The very notion that we have a "free market" is beliedby the fact that investors, advisers and market analysts wait with batedbreath to hear what the Fed is going to do to interest rates from monthto month. The market is responding not to supply and demand but totop-down dictatorial control. Not that that would be so bad if it actu-ally worked, but a sinking economy can't be kept afloat merely byadjusting interest rates. The problem has been compared to "pushingon a string": when credit (or debt) is the only way to keep money inan economy, once borrowers are "all borrowed up" and lenders havereached their lending limits, no amount of lowering interest rates willget more debt-money into the system. Lenders managed to get aroundthe lending limits by moving loans off their books and selling them toinvestors, but when the investors learned that the loans were "toxic"

— infected with risky subprime debt — they quit buying, putting the"credit market" (or debt market) at risk of seizing up altogether. Theonly solution to this conundrum is to get "real" money into the system

— real, interest-free, debt-free, government-issued legal tender of thesort first devised by the American colonists.

By 2005, financial weather forecasters could see two economicstorm fronts forming on the horizon, and both were being blamed onthe market manipulations of the Fed ....

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Chapter 31THE PERFECT FINANCIAL STORM

Uncle Henry sat upon the doorstep and looked anxiously at thesky, which was even grayer than usual. . . . "There's a cyclone coming,Em," he called to his wife. . . . Aunt Em dropped her work and cameto the door. . . . "Quick, Dorothy I" she screamed. "Run for the cellar!"

- The Wonderful Wizard ofOz,"The Cyclone"

The rare weather phenomenon known as "the perfect storm"occurs when two storm fronts collide. What analysts are calling"the perfect financial storm" is the impending collision of the twoeconomic storm fronts of inflation and deflation. The American moneysupply is being continually pumped up with new money created asloans, but borrowers are increasingly unable to repay their loans, whichare going into default. When loans are extinguished by default, themoney supply contracts and deflation and depression result. Thecollision of these two forces can result in "stagflation" - price inflationwithout economic growth. That is a "category 1" financial storm. A"category 5" storm might result from a derivatives crisis in which majortraders defaulted on their bets, or from a serious decline in the housingmarket. In a June 2005 newsletter, Al Martin stated that the GeneralAccounting Office, the Office of the Comptroller of the Currency, andthe Federal Housing Administration had privately warned that adecline of as much as 40 percent could occur in the housing marketbetween 2005 and 2010. A housing decline of that magnitude couldcollapse the economy of the United States.1

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The Debt Crisis and the Housing Bubble

After a series of changes beginning in 2001 dropping the federalfunds rate to unprecedented lows, housing prices began their inexorableclimb, aided by a loosening of lending standards. Adjustable-rate loans,interest only loans, and no down payment loans drew many new homebuyers into the market, putting steady upward pressure on prices.Soaring housing prices, in turn, deepened the debt crisis. To keep allthis new debt-money afloat required a steady stream of new borrowers,prompting lenders to offer loans to shaky borrowers on more and morelax conditions. In 2005, a Mortgage Bankers Association survey foundthat high-risk adjustable and interest-only loans had grown to accountfor nearly half of new loan applications. Federal Reserve GovernorSusan Schmidt Bies, speaking in October 2005, said that average U.S.housing prices had appreciated by more than 80 percent since 1997.

Rock-bottom interest rates salvaged stock market speculators andbig investment banks from the 2000 recession, and they allowed somepolitically-popular tax cuts that favored big investors; but they weredisastrous for the bond market, where retired people have traditionallyinvested for a safe and predictable return on their savings. By 2004,real returns after inflation on short-term interest rates were negative.2(That is, if you lent $100 to the government by buying its bonds thisyear, your investment might grow to be worth $102 next year; butafter inflation it would be worth only $98.) The result was to forceretired people living on investment income out of the reliable bondmarket into the much riskier stock market. Today stocks are ownedby over half of Americans, the highest number in history.

The Fed's low-interest policies also discouraged foreign investorsfrom buying U.S. bonds, and that is what precipitated the secondfinancial storm front. Foreign investment money is relied on by thegovernment to roll over its ballooning debt. New bonds mustcontinually be sold to investors to replace the old bonds as they comedue. The Fed has therefore been under pressure to raise interest rates,both to attract foreign investors and to keep a lid on inflation. Higherinterest rates, however, mean that increasing numbers of homes willgo into foreclosure; and when mortgages are voided out, the supply ofcredit-money they created shrinks with them. Although the sellershave been paid and the old loan money is still in the system, the bankshave to balance their books, which means they can create less moneyin the form of new loans; and borrowers are harder to find, because

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higher interest rates are less attractive to them. In the last "normal"correction of the housing market, between 1989 and 1991, medianhome prices dropped by 17 percent, and 3.6 million mortgages wentinto default. Analysts estimated, however, that the same decline in2005 would have produced 20 million defaults, because the averageequity-to-debt ratio (the percentage of a home that is actually "owned"by the homeowner) had dropped dramatically. The ratio went from37 percent in 1990 to a mere 14 percent in 2005, a record low, because$3 trillion had been taken out of property equities in the previous fouryears to sustain consumer spending.3

What would 20 million defaults do to the money supply? Al Martincites a Federal Reserve study reported by Alan Greenspan before theJoint Economic Committee in June 2005, estimating that two trilliondollars would simply evaporate along with these uncollectible loans. Thatmeans two trillion dollars less to spend on government programs, wagesand salaries. In 2005, two trillion dollars was about one-fifth the totalM3 money supply. Accompanying that radical contraction, analystspredicted that stocks and home values would plummet, income taxeswould triple, Social Security and Medicare benefits would be slashedin half, and pensions and comfortable retirements would becomethings of the past. And that was assuming housing prices dropped byonly 17 percent. A substantially higher drop was feared, with evenmore dire consequences.4

Fannie and Freddie: Compounding the Housing Crisis withDerivatives and Mortgage-Backed Securities

In a June 2002 article titled "Fannie and Freddie Were Lenders,"Richard Freeman warned that the housing bubble was the largestbubble in history, dwarfing anything that had gone before; and that ithas been pumped up to its gargantuan size by Fannie Mae (the FederalNational Mortgage Association) and Freddie Mac (the Federal HomeMortgage Corporation), twin volcanoes that were about to blow.Fannie and Freddie have dramatically expanded the ways money canbe created by mortgage lending, allowing the banks to issue manymore loans than would otherwise have been possible; but it all addsup to another Ponzi scheme, and it has reached its mathematical limits.

Focusing on the larger of these two institutional cousins, FannieMae, Freeman noted that if it were a bank, it would be the third larg-est bank in the world; and that it makes enormous amounts of money

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in the real estate market for its private owners. Contrary to popularbelief, Fannie Mae is not actually a government agency. It began thatway under Roosevelt's New Deal, but it was later transformed into atotally private corporation. It issued stock that was bought by privateinvestors, and eventually it was listed on the stock exchange. Like theFederal Reserve, it is now "federal" only in name.

Before the late 1970s, there were two principal forms of mortgagelending. The lender could issue a mortgage loan and keep it; or thelender could sell the loan to Fannie Mae and use the cash to make asecond loan, which could also be sold to Fannie Mae, allowing thebank to make a third loan, and so on. Freeman gives the example of amortgage-lending financial institution that makes five successive loansin this way for $150,000 each, all from an initial investment of$150,000. It sells the first four loans to Fannie Mae, which buys themwith money made from the issuance of its own bonds. The lenderkeeps the fifth loan. At the end of the process, the mortgage-lendinginstitution still has only one loan for $150,000 on its books, and FannieMae has loans totaling $600,000 on its books.

In 1979-81, however, policy changes were made that would floodthe housing market with even more new money. Fannie Mae gatheredits purchased mortgages from different mortgage-lending institutionsand pooled them together, producing a type of lending vehicle calleda Mortgage-Backed Security (MBS). Fannie might, for example, bundleone thousand 30-year fixed-interest mortgages, each worth roughly$100,000, and pool them into a $100 million MBS. It would put a loanguarantee on the MBS, for which it would earn a fee, guaranteeingthat in the event of default it would pay the interest and principal dueon the loans "fully and in a timely fashion." The MBS would then besold as securities in denominations of $1,000 or more to outsideinvestors, including mutual funds, pension funds, and insurancecompanies. The investors would become the owners of the MBS andwould have a claim on the underlying principal and interest stream ofthe mortgage; but if anything went wrong, Fannie Mae was stillresponsible. The MBS succeeded in extending the sources of fundsthat could be tapped into for mortgage lending far into U.S. andinternational financial markets. It also substantially increased FannieMae's risk.

Then Fannie devised a fourth way of extracting money from themarkets. It took the securities and pooled them again, this time intoan instrument called a Real Estate Mortgage Investment Conduit or

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REMIC (also known as a "restructured MBS" or collateralized mort-gage obligation). REMICs are very complex derivatives. Freemanwrote, "They are pure bets, sold to institutional investors, and indi-viduals, to draw money into the housing bubble." Roughly half ofFannie Mae's Mortgage Backed Securities have been transformed intothese highly speculative REMIC derivative instruments. "Thus," saidFreeman, "what started out as a simple home mortgage has beentransmogrified into something one would expect to find at a Las Ve-gas gambling casino. Yet the housing bubble now depends on pre-cisely these instruments as sources of funds."

Only the first of these devices is an "asset," something on whichFannie Mae can collect a steady stream of principal and interest. Theothers represent very risky obligations. These investment vehicles havefed the housing bubble and have fed off it, but at some point, saidFreeman, a wave of mortgage defaults is inevitable; and when thathappens, the riskier mortgage-related obligations will amplify the crisis.They are particularly risky because they involve leveraging (makingmultiple investments with borrowed money). That means that whenthe bet goes wrong, many losses have to be paid instead of one.

In 2002, Fannie Mae's bonds made up over $700 billion of itsoutstanding debt total of $764 billion. Only one source of income wasavailable to pay the interest and principal on these bonds, the moneyFannie collected on the mortgages it owned. If a substantial numberof mortgages were to go into default, Fannie would not have the cashto pay its bondholders. Freeman observed that no company in Americahas ever defaulted on as much as $50 billion in bonds, and Fannie Mae hasover $700 billion - at least ten times more than any other corporation inAmerica. A default on a bonded debt of that size, he said, could endthe U.S. financial system virtually overnight.

Like those banking institutions considered "too big to fail," FannieMae has tentacles reaching into so much of the financial system that ifit goes, it could take the economy down with it. A wave of homemortgage defaults would not alone have been enough to bring downthe whole housing market, said Freeman; but adding the possibility ofdefault on Fannie's riskier obligations, totaling over $2 trillion in 2002,the chance of a system-wide default has been raised to "radioactive"levels. If a crisis in the housing mortgage market were to produce awave of loan defaults, Fannie would not be able to meet the terms ofthe guarantees it put on $859 billion in Mortgage-Backed Securities,and the pension funds and other investors buying the MBS would

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Chapter 31 - The Perfect Financial Storm

suffer tens of billions of dollars in losses. Fannie's derivative obligations,which totaled $533 billion in 2002, could also go into default. Thesehedges are supposed to protect investors from risks, but the hedgesthemselves are very risky ventures. Fannie Mae has takenextraordinary measures to roll over shaky mortgages in order to obscurethe level of default currently threatening the system; but as householdswith declining real standards of living are increasingly unable to payrising home prices and the demands of ever larger mortgages andhigher interest payments, mortgage defaults will rise. The leveragethat has been built into the housing market could then unwind like arubber band, rapidly de-leveraging the entire market.5

In 2003, Freddie Mac was embroiled in a $5 billion accountingscandal, in which it was caught "cooking" the books to make thingslook rosier than they were. In 2004, Fannie Mae was caught in asimilar scandal. In 2006, Fannie agreed to pay $400 million for itsmisbehavior ($50 million to the U.S. government and $350 million todefrauded shareholders), and to try to straighten out its books. Butinvestigators said the accounting could be beyond repair, since some$16 billion had simply disappeared from the books.

Meanwhile, after blowing the housing bubble to perilous heightswith a 1 percent prime rate, the Fed proceeded to let the air back outwith a succession of interest rate hikes. By 2006, the housing boomwas losing steam. Nervous investors wondered who would beshouldering the risk when the mortgages bundled into MBS slid intodefault. As one colorful blogger put it:

So let me get this straight.... Is the following scenario belowactually playing out?

For starters ma n' pa computer programmer buy a 500Khouse in Ballard using a neg-am/i-o [negative amortizationinterest-only mortgage] sold to them by a dodgy local fly-by nightlender. That lender immediately sells it off to some middle-manfor a period of time. The middlemen take their cut and then sellthat loan upstream to Fannie Mae/Freddie Mac before it becomestotally toxic and reaches critical mass. At which point FM/FMbundle that loan into a mortgage backed security and sell it topension funds, foreign banks, etc. etc.

What happens when those loans go into their inevitabledefault? Who owns the property at that point and is left holdingthe bag?6

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Web of Debt

Nobody on the blog seemed to know; but according to Freeman,Fannie Mae will be holding the bag, since it guaranteed payment ofinterest and principal in the event of default. When Fannie Mae can'tpay, the pension funds and other institutions investing in its MBS willbe left holding the bag; and it is these pension funds that manage theinvestments on which the retirements of American workers depend. Whenthat happens, comfortable retirements could indeed be things of thepast.

What Happens When No One Has Standing to Foreclose?

In October 2007, a U.S. District Court judge in Ohio threw an-other wrench in the works, when he held that Deutsche Bank did nothave standing to foreclose on 14 mortgage loans it held in trust for apool of MBS holders. Judge Christopher Boyko said that a securitybacked by a mortgage is not the same thing as a mortgage. Securitizedmortgage debt has become so complex that it's nearly impossible toknow who owns the underlying properties in a typical mortgage pool;and without a legal owner, there is no one to foreclose and thereforeno actual "security."7 That could be good news for distressed bor-rowers but a major blow to MBS holders. Outstanding securitizedmortgage debt now comes to $6.5 trillion — or it did before its valuewas put in doubt. What these securities would fetch on the markettoday is hard to say. If large numbers of defaulting homeownerswere to contest their foreclosures on the ground that the plaintiffslacked standing to sue, $6.5 trillion in MBS could be in jeopardy. TheMBS holders, in turn, might have a very large class action against thebanks that designed these misbranded investment vehicles.8

The discovery that securities rated "triple-A" may be infected withtoxic subprime debt has made investors leery of investing and lendersleery of lending, and that includes the money market funds relied onby banks to balance their books from day to day. The entire creditmarket is at risk of seizing up.

It is at risk of seizing up for another, more perilous reason ....

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Chapter 32IN THE EYE OF THE CYCLONE:HOW THE DERIVATIVES CRISIS HASGRIDLOCKED THE BANKING SYSTEM

In the middle of a cyclone the air is generally still, but the greatpressure of the wind on every side of the house raised it up higher andhigher, until it was at the very top of the cyclone; and there it remainedand was carried miles and miles away.

- The Wonderful Wizard ofOz,"The Cyclone"

The looming derivatives crisis is another phenomenonoften described with weather imagery. "The grey clouds aregetting darker," wrote financial consultant Colt Bagley in 2004; "thewinds only need to kick up and we'll have one heck of a financialcyclone in the making."1 A decade earlier, Christopher White toldCongress:

Taken as a whole, the financial derivatives market, orchestratedby financiers, operates with the vortical properties of a powerfulhurricane. It is so huge and packs such a large momentum, thatit sucks up the overwhelming majority of the capital and cashthat enters or already exists in the economy. It makes a mockeryof the idea that a nation exercises sovereign control over its creditpolicy.1

Martin Weiss, writing in a November 2006 investment newsletter,called the derivatives crisis "a global Vesuvius that could erupt atalmost any time, instantly throwing the world's financial markets intoturmoil . . . bankrupting major banks . . . sinking big-name insurancecompanies . . . scrambling the investments of hedge funds . . .overturning the portfolios of millions of average investors."3

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John Hoefle's arresting image was of fleas on a dog. "The fleashave killed the dog," he said, "and thus they have killed themselves."4Colt Bagley also sees in the derivatives crisis the seeds of the banks'own destruction. He wrote in 2004:

Once upon a time, the American banking system extended loansto productive agriculture and industry. Now, it is a vast bettingmachine, gaming on market distortions of interest rates, stocks,currencies, etc. . . . JP Morgan Chase Bank (JPMC) dominates theU.S. derivatives market . . . JPMC Bank alone has derivativesapproaching four times the U.S. Gross Domestic Product of $11.5trillion. Next come Bank of America and Citibank, with $14.9trillion and $14.4 trillion in derivatives, respectively. The OCC[Office of the Comptroller of the Currency] reports that the topseven American derivatives banks hold 96% of the U.S. bankingsystem's notional derivatives holding. If these banks suffer seriousimpairment of their derivatives holdings, kiss the banking systemgoodbye.

Martin Weiss envisions how this collapse might occur:

Portfolio managers at a major hedge fund bet too much ondeclining interest rates and they lose. They don't have enoughcapital to pay up on the bet, and the counterparties in thetransaction - the winners of the bet - can't collect. Result: Manyof these winners, also low on capital, can't pay up on their ownbets and debts in a series of other derivatives transactions.Suddenly, in a chain reaction that no government or exchangeauthority can halt, dozens of major transactions slip into default,each setting off dozens of additional defaults.

Major U.S. banks you've trusted with your hard-earnedsavings lose billions. Their shares plunge. Their uninsured CDsare jeopardized.

Mortgage lenders dramatically tighten their lendingstandards. Mortgage money virtually disappears. The U.S.housing market, already sinking, busts wide open.5

Derivatives 101

Gary Novak, whose website simplifying complex issues was quotedearlier, explains that the banking system has become gridlockedbecause its pretended "derivative" assets are fake; and the fake assetshave swallowed up the real assets. It all began with deregulation in

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the 1980s, when government regulation was considered an irrationalscheme from which business had to be freed. But regulations arecriminal codes, and eliminating them meant turning business over tothieves. The Enron and Worldcom defendants were able to argue incourt that their procedures were legal, because the laws making themillegal had been wiped off the books. Government regulation preventedthe creation of "funny money" without real value. When theregulations were eliminated, funny money became the order of theday. It manifested in a variety of very complex vehicles lumpedtogether under the label of derivatives, which were often madeintentionally obscure and confusing.

"Physicists were hired to write equations for derivatives whichbusiness administrators could not understand," Novak says.Derivatives are just bets, but they have been sold as if they weresomething of value, until the sales have reached astronomical sumsthat are far beyond anything of real value in existence. Pension fundsand trust funds have bought into the Ponzi scheme, only to see theirmoney disappear down the derivatives hole. Universities have beenforced to charge huge tuitions although they are financed with hugetrust funds, because their money has been tied up in investments thatare basically worthless. But the administrators are holding onto theirbets, which are "given a pretended value, because heads roll whenthe truth comes to light." Nobody dares to sell and nobody can collect.The result is a shortage of available funds in global financial institutions.The very thing derivatives were designed to create - market liquidity -has been frozen to immobility in a gridlocked game.6

The author of a blog called "World Vision Portal" simplifies thederivatives problem in another way. He writes:

Anyone who has been to Las Vegas or at the casino on acruise ship can understand it perfectly. A bank gambles andbets on certain pre-determined odds, like playing the casino dealerin a game of poker (banks call this "hedging their risks with de-rivative contracts"). When they have to show their cards at theend of the play, they either win or lose their bet; either the bankwins or the house wins (this is the end of the derivative contractterm).

For us small-time players, we might lose $10 or $20, but thebig-time banks are betting hundreds of millions on each cardhand. The worst part is that they have a gambling addictionand can't stop betting money that isn't theirs to bet with. . . .

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Winners always leave the gambling table with a big smileand you can see the chips in their hand to know they won morethan they had bet. But losers always walk away quietly anddon't talk about how much they lost. If a bank makes a goodprofit (won their bet), they would be telling everyone that theirderivative contracts have paid off and they're sitting pretty. Inreality, the big-time gambling banks are not talking and won'ttell anyone how much they gambled or how much they lost.

We've been hoodwinked and the game is pretty much over.7

The irony is that derivative bets are sold as a form of insuranceagainst something catastrophic going wrong. But if something cata-strophic does go wrong, the counterparties (the parties on the otherside of the bet, typically hedge funds) are liable to fold their cards anddrop out of the game. The "insured" are left with losses both from thedisaster itself and from the loss of the premium paid for the bet. Toavoid that result, the Federal Reserve, along with other central banks,a fraternity of big private banks, and the U.S. Treasury itself, havegotten into the habit of covertly bailing out losing counterparties. Thiswas done when the giant hedge fund Long Term Capital Manage-ment went bankrupt in 1998. It was also evidently done in 2005, butvery quietly ....

A Derivatives Crisis Orders of MagnitudeBeyond LTCM?

Rumors of a derivatives crisis dwarfing even the LTCM debaclesurfaced in May 2005, following the downgrading of the debts of Gen-eral Motors and Ford Motor Corporation to "junk" (bonds having acredit rating below investment grade). Severe problems had appar-ently occurred at several large hedge funds directly linked to thesedowngradings. In an article in Executive Intelligence Review in May2005, Lothar Komp wrote:

The stocks of the same large banks that participated in the 1998LTCM bailout, and which are known for their giant derivativesportfolios - including Citigroup, JP Morgan Chase, GoldmanSachs, and Deutsche Bank - were hit by panic selling on May10. Behind this panic was the knowledge that not only havethese banks engaged in dangerous derivatives speculation ontheir own accounts, but, ever desperate for cash to cover their

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own deteriorating positions, they also turned to the even morespeculative hedge funds, placing money with existing funds, oreven setting up their own, to engage in activities they didn'tcare to put on their own books. The combination of financialdesperation, the Fed's liquidity binge, and the usury-limitingeffects of low interest rates, triggered an explosion in the numberof hedge funds in recent years, as everyone chased higher, andriskier, returns. There can be no doubt that some of these banks,not only their hedge fund offspring, are in trouble right now.8

Dire warnings ensued of a derivatives crisis "orders of magnitudebeyond LTCM." But reports of a major derivative blow-out were be-ing publicly denied, says Komp, since any bank or hedge fund thatadmitted such losses without first working a bail-out scheme wouldinstantly collapse. An insider in the international banking commu-nity said that "there is no doubt that the Fed and other central banksare pouring liquidity into the system, covertly. This would not becomepublic until early April [2006], at which point the Fed and other centralbanks will have to report on the money supply."9

We've seen that when the Fed "pours liquidity into the system," itdoes it by "open market operations" that create money with account-ing entries and lend this money into the money supply, "monetizing"government debt. If it became widely known that the Fed were print-ing dollars wholesale, however, alarm bells would sound. Investorswould rush to cash in their dollar holdings, crashing the dollar andthe stock market, following the familiar pattern seen in Third Worldcountries.10 What to do? The Fed apparently chose to muffle the alarmbells. It announced that in March 2006, it would no longer be report-ing M3. M3 has been the main staple of money supply measurementand transparent disclosure for the last half-century, the figure on whichthe world has relied in determining the soundness of the dollar. In aDecember 2005 article called "The Grand Illusion," financial analystRob Kirby wrote:

On March 23,2006, the Board of Governors of the Federal ReserveSystem will cease publication of the M3 monetary aggregate.The Board will also cease publishing the following components:large-denomination time deposits, repurchase agreements (RPs),and Eurodollars. . . . [These securities] are exactly where onewould expect to find the "capture" of any large scalemonetization effort that the Fed would embark upon - shouldthe need occur.

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A commentator going by the name of Captain Hook observed:

[T]his is as big a deal as Nixon closing the "gold window" backin '71, and we all know what happened after that. . . . [I]t almostlooks like the boys are getting ready to unleash Weimar RepublicII on the world. . . . Can you say welcome to the "People'sRepublic of the United States of What Used to Be America"?. . .[W]e just got another very "big signal" from U.S. monetary authoritiesthat the rules of the game are about to change fundamentally, onceagain.11

When Nixon closed the gold window internationally in 1971 andwhen Roosevelt did it domestically before that, the rules were changedto keep a bankrupt private banking system afloat. The change in theFed's reporting habits in 2006 appears to have been designed for thesame purpose. The Fed was soon rumored to be madly printing up $2trillion in new Federal Reserve Notes.12 Why? Some analysts pointedto the festering derivatives crisis, while others said it was the housingcrisis; but there were also rumors of a third cyclone on the horizon.Iran announced that it would be opening an oil market (or "bourse")in Euros in March 2006, sidestepping the 1974 agreement with OPECto trade oil only in U.S. dollars. An article in the Arab online maga-zine Al-Tazeerah warned that the Iranian bourse "could lead to a col-lapse in value for the American currency, potentially putting the U.S.economy in its greatest crisis since the depression era of the 1930s."13Rob Kirby wrote:

[I]f countries like Japan and China (and other Asian countries)with their trillions of U.S. dollars no longer need them (or requirea great deal less of them) to buy oil . . . [and] begin wholesaleliquidation of U.S. debt obligations, there is no doubt in my mindthat the Fed will print the dollars necessary to redeem them -this would necessarily imply an absolutely enormous (can yousay hyperinflation) bloating of the money supply - which wouldundoubtedly be captured statistically in M3 or its relatedreporting. It would appear that we're all going to be "flyingblind" as to how much money the Fed is truly going to pumpinto the system . . . ,14

For the Federal Reserve to "monetize" the government's debt withnewly-issued dollars is actually nothing new. When no one else buysU.S. securities, the Fed routinely steps in and buys them with moneycreated for the occasion. What is new, and what has analysts alarmed,is that the whole process is now occurring behind a heavy curtain of

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secrecy. Richard Daughty, an entertaining commentator who writesin The Daily Reckoning as the Mogambu Guru, commented in April2006:

There was ... a flurry of excitement last week when therewas a rumor that the Federal Reserve had printed up, suddenly,$2 trillion in cash. My initial reaction was, of course,"Hahahaha!" and my reasoning is thus: why would they gothrough the hassle? They can make electronic money with thewave of a finger, so why go through the messy rigamarole ofdealing with ink and paper and all the problems of transportingit and counting it and storing it and blah blah blah?

But . . . this whole "two trillion in cash" scenario has some,um, merit, especially if you are thinking that foreigners dumpingAmerican securities . . . would instantly be reflected ininstantaneous losses in bonds and meteoric rises in interest ratesand the entire global economic machine would melt down.Bummer.

So maybe this could explain the "two trill in cash" plan:With this amount of cash, see, the American government can prettymuch buy all the government securities that any foreigners want tosell, but the inflationary effects of creating so much money won'tbe felt in prices for awhile! Hahaha! They think this is clever!15

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It might be clever, if it really were the American government buyingback its own securities; but it isn't. It is the private Federal Reserve andprivate banks. If dollars are to be printed wholesale and federal securitiesare to be redeemed with them, why not let Congress do the job itselfand avoid a massive unnecessary debt to financial middlemen?Arguably, as we'll see later, if the government were to buy back itsown bonds and take them out of circulation, it could not only escapea massive federal debt but could do this without producing inflation.Government securities are already traded around the world just as ifthey were money. They would just be turned into cash, leaving theoverall money supply unchanged. When the Federal Reserve buys upgovernment bonds with newly-issued money, on the other hand, thebonds aren't taken out of circulation. Instead, they become the basisfor generating many times their value in new loans; and that result ishighly inflationary. But that is getting ahead of our story ....

The Orwellian Solution

The Fed had succeeded in hiding its sleight of hand by concealingthe numbers for M3, but inflation was obviously occurring. By thespring of 2006, oil, gold, silver and other commodities were skyrocket-ing. Then, mysteriously, these inflation indicators too got suppressed.In the British journal Financial News Online in October 2006, BarryRiley wryly observed:

Until the summer, the trends appeared ominous. The Fedwas raising short rates and inflation was climbing. The price ofcrude oil stopped short of $80 a barrel. Sales of new homeswere dropping off a cliff. Then, as if by magic, everythingchanged. The oil price went into reverse, tumbling to under $60with favourable implications for the Consumer Price Indexmeasure of inflation .... Similarly, the gold bullion price - anindicator of the potential fragility of the dollar exchange rate -has crashed from its early summer high. The Dow Jones Averagetwo weeks ago advanced to a high, at last beating the bubbletop in January 2000.

. . . [T]he pattern is curious. . . . Perhaps bonds andcommodities have been anticipating a recession. But then whyhas the equity market climbed?

Conspiracy theories have abounded since Hank Paulson, bossof Goldman Sachs, was nominated in May to become treasury

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secretary. He had no political qualifications but a powerfulreputation as a market fixer. Was he brought in to shore up thefinancial and commodities markets ahead of [the November 2006elections]?

The suspicion arose that the Fed and its banking partners werehiding bad economic news in another way — by actually manipulatingmarkets. Catherine Austin Fitts, former assistant secretary of HUD,called it "the Orwellian scenario." In a 2004 interview, she darklyobserved:

[W]e've reached a point. . . where rather than let financial assetsadjust, the powers that be now have [such] control of theeconomy through the banking system and through thegovernmental apparatus [that] they can simply steal more money. . ., whether it's [by keeping] the stock market pumped up, thederivatives going, or the gold price manipulated down. ... Inother words, you can adjust to your economy not by letting thevalue of the stock market or financial assets fall, but you can usewarfare and organized crime to liquidate and steal whatever itis you need to keep the game going. And that's the kind ofOrwellian scenario whereby you can basically keep this thinggoing, but in a way that leads to a highly totalitarian governmentand economy - corporate feudalism.16

Latter-day Paul Reveres warned that domestic security measureswere being tightened and civil rights were being stripped. Thesedevelopments mirrored IMF policies in Third World countries, wherethe "IMF riot" was actually anticipated and factored in when "austeritymeasures" were imposed.17 Conspiracy theorists pointed to efforts toget the Constitution suspended under the Emergency Powers Act,martial law imposed under the Patriot and Homeland Security Acts,and the American democratic form of government replaced with apolice state.18 They noted the use of the military in 2005 to quell riotingin New Orleans following Hurricane Katrina, in violation of possecomitatus, a statute forbidding U.S. active military participation indomestic law enforcement.19 They observed that fully-armed privatemercenaries, some of them foreign, even appeared on the streets. Thescene recalled a statement made by former U.S. Secretary of State HenryKissinger at a 1992 conference of the secretive Bilderbergers, covertlytaped by a Swiss delegate in 1992. Kissinger reportedly said:

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Today, America would be outraged if U.N. troops entered LosAngeles to restore order. Tomorrow they will be grateful! . . .The one thing every man fears is the unknown. When presentedwith this scenario, individual rights will be willingly relinquishedfor the guarantee of their well-being granted to them by theWorld Government.20

Suspicions were voiced concerning the Federal EmergencyManagement Agency (FEMA), which was in charge of disaster relief.In a November 2005 newsletter, Al Martin wrote:

FEMA is being upgraded as a federal agency, and upon passageof PATRIOT Act III, which contains the amendment to overturnposse comitatus, FEMA will be re-militarized, which will give theagency military police powers. . . . Why is all of this being done?Why is the regime moving to a militarized police state and to adictatorship? It is because of what Comptroller General David Walkersaid, that after 2009, the ability of the United States to continue toservice its debt becomes questionable. Although the average citizenmay not understand what that means, when the United Statescan no longer service its debt it collapses as an economic entity.We would be an economically collapsed state. The only waygovernment can function and can maintain control in an economicallycollapsed state is through a military dictatorship.21

The Parasite's Challenge:How to Feed on the Host Without Destroying It

Critics charge that warfare, terrorism, and natural disasters on anunprecedented scale are being used to justify massive federalborrowing, while diverting attention from the fact that the economyis drowning in a sea of governmental and consumer debt.22 And thatmay be true; but policymakers are only doing what they have to dounder the current monetary scheme. In an upside-down world inwhich debt is money and money is debt, somebody has to go into debtjust to keep money in the system so the economy won't collapse. Theold productive virtues - hard work, productivity and creativity - havegone out the window. The new producers of economic "growth" areborrowers and speculators. Henry C K Liu draws an analogy fromphysics:

[Wjhenever credit is issued, money is created. The issuing ofcredit creates debt on the part of the counterparty, but debt is

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Web of Debt

not money; credit is. If anything, debt is negative money, a formof financial antimatter. Physicists understand the relationshipbetween matter and antimatter. . . . The collision of matter andantimatter produces annihilation that returns matter andantimatter to pure energy. The same is true with credit anddebt, which are related but opposite. . . . The collision of creditand debt will produce an annihilation and return the resultantunion to pure financial energy unharnessed for human benefit.23

Credit and debt cancel each other out and merge back into thegreat zero-point field from whence they came. To avoid that resultand keep "money" in the economy, new debt must continually becreated. When commercial borrowers aren't creating enough moneyby borrowing it into existence, the government must take over thatfunction by spending money it doesn't have, justifying its loans in anyway it can. Keeping the economy alive means continually findingways to pump newly-created loan money into the system, whileconcealing the fact that this "money" has been spun out of thin air.These new loans don't necessarily have to be paid back. New moneyjust has to be circulated, providing a source of funds to pay the extrainterest that wasn't lent into existence by the original loans. A varietyof alternatives for pumping liquidity into the system have been resortedto by governments and central banks, including:

1. Drastically lowering interest rates, encouraging borrowers toexpand the money supply by going further and further into debt.

2. Instituting tax cuts and rebates that put money into people'spockets. The resulting budget shortfall is made up later with newissues of U.S. bonds, which are "bought" by the Federal Reservewith dollars printed up for the occasion.

3. Authorizing public works, space exploration, military research,and other projects that will justify massive government borrowingthat never gets paid back.

4. Engaging in war as a pretext for borrowing, preferably a war thatwill drag on. People are willing in times of emergency to allow thegovernment to engage heavily in deficit spending to defend thehomeland.

5. Lending to Third World countries. If necessary, some of theseimpossible-to-repay loans can be quietly forgiven later withoutrepayment.

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Chapter 32 - In the Eye of the Cyclone

6. Periodic foreclosures on the loan collateral, transferring the collateralback to the banks, which can then be resold to new borrowers,creating new debt-money. The result is the "business cycle" -periodic waves of depression that flush away debt with massivedefaults and foreclosures, causing the progressive transfer of wealthfrom debtors to the banks.

7. Manipulation (or "rigging") of financial markets, including thestock market, in order to keep investor confidence high andencourage further borrowing, until savings are heavily investedand real estate is heavily mortgaged, when the default phase ofthe business cycle can begin again.24

Rigging the stock market? At one time, writes New York Postcolumnist John Crudele, just mentioning that possibility got a personbranded as a "conspiracy nut":

This country, the critics would say, never interferes with its freecapital markets. Sure, there's intervention in the currenciesmarkets. And, yes, the Federal Reserve does manipulate thebond market and interest rates through word and deed. Butnever, ever would such action be taken at the core of capitalism- the equity markets, which for better or worse must operatewithout interference. That's the way the standoff stayed until1997 when - at the height of the Last of the Great Bubbles -someone in government decided it wanted the world to knowthat there was someone actually paying attention in case WallStreet could not handle its own problems. The Working Groupon Financial Markets - affectionately known as the PlungeProtection Team - suddenly came out of the closet.25

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Chapter 33MAINTAINING THE ILLUSION:RIGGING FINANCIAL MARKETS

The Dow is a dead banana republic dictator in full military uniformpropped up in the castle window with a mechanical lever moving thecadaver's arm, waving to the Wall Street crowd.

- Michael Bolser, Midas (April 2004)1

While people, businesses and local and federal governmentsare barreling toward bankruptcy, market bulls continue toinsist that all is well; and for evidence, they point to the robust stockmarket. It's uncanny really. Even when there is every reason to thinkthe market is about to crash, somehow it doesn't. Bill Murphy, editorof an informative investment website called Le Metropole Cafe,described this phenomenon in an October 2005 newsletter using ananalogy from The Wizard of Oz:

Every time it looks like the stock market is on the verge of collapse,it comes back with a vengeance. In May for example, therewere rumors of derivative problems and hedge fund problems,which set up the monster rally into the summer. The Londonbombings . . . same deal. Now we just saw Katrina and Ritaprecipitate rallies. There must be some mechanism at work, like theWizard of Oz behind a curtain, pulling on strings and pushingbuttons.2

What sort of mechanism? John Crudele writes that the cat was letout of the bag by George Stephanopoulos, President Clinton's senioradviser on policy and strategy, in the chaos following the World TradeCenter attacks. Stepanopoulos blurted out on "Good MorningAmerica" on September 17, 2001:

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"[T]he Fed in 1989 created what is called the Plunge ProtectionTeam, which is the Federal Reserve, big major banks,representatives of the New York Stock Exchange and the otherexchanges, and there - they have been meeting informally sofar, and they have kind of an informal agreement among major banksto come in and start to buy stock if there appears to be a problem.

"They have, in the past, acted more formally.

"I don't know if you remember, but in 1998, there was a crisiscalled the Long Term Capital crisis. It was a major currencytrader and there was a global currency crisis. And they, at theguidance of the Fed, all of the banks got together when that startedto collapse and propped up the currency markets. And they haveplans in place to consider that if the stock markets start to fall."3

The Plunge Protection Team (PPT) is formally called the WorkingGroup on Financial Markets (WGFM). Created by President Reagan'sExecutive Order 12631 in 1988 in response to the October 1987 stockmarket crash, the WGFM includes the President, the Secretary of theTreasury, the Chairman of the Federal Reserve, the Chairman of theSecurities and Exchange Commission, and the Chairman of the Com-modity Futures Trading Commission. Its stated purpose is to enhance"the integrity, efficiency, orderliness, and competitiveness of ourNation's financial markets and [maintain] investor confidence." Ac-cording to the Order:

To the extent permitted by law and subject to the availability offunds therefore, the Department of the Treasury shall providethe Working Group with such administrative and supportservices as may be necessary for the performance of its functions.4

In plain English, taxpayer money is being used to make the mar-kets look healthier than they are. Treasury funds are made available,but the WGFM is not accountable to Congress and can act from be-hind closed doors. It not only can but it must, since if investors wereto realize what was going on, they would not fall for the bait. "Main-taining investor confidence" means keeping investors in the dark abouthow shaky the market really is.

Crudele tracked the shady history of the PPT in his June 2006 NewYork Post series:

Back during a stock market crisis in 1989, a guy named RobertHeller - who had just left the Federal Reserve Board - suggestedthat the government rig the stock market in times of direemergency. . . . He didn't use the word "rig" but that's what hemeant.

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Proposed as an op-ed in the Wall Street Journal, it's a seminalargument that says when a crisis occurs on Wall Street "insteadof flooding the entire economy with liquidity, and therebyincreasing the danger of inflation, the Fed could support thestock market directly by buying market averages in the futuresmarket, thus stabilizing the market as a whole."

The stock market was to be the Roman circus of the twenty-firstcentury, distracting the masses with pretensions of prosperity. In-stead of fixing the problem in the economy, the PPT would just "fix"the investment casino. Crudele wrote:

Over the next few years . . . whenever the stock market was introuble someone seemed to ride to the rescue. . . . Often itappeared to be Goldman Sachs, which just happens to be where[newly-appointed Treasury Secretary] Paulson and formerClinton Treasury Secretary Robert Rubin worked.

For obvious reasons, the mechanism by which the PPT has riddento the rescue isn't detailed on the Fed's website; but some analyststhink they know. Michael Bolser, who belongs to an antitrust groupcalled GATA (the Gold Anti-Trust Action Committee), says that PPTmoney is funneled through the Fed's "primary dealers," a group offavored Wall Street brokerage firms and investment banks. The de-vice used is a form of loan called a "repurchase agreement" or "repo,"which is a contract for the sale and future repurchase of Treasurysecurities. Bolser explains:

It may sound odd, but the Fed occasionally gives money["permanent" repos] to its primary dealers (a list of about thirtyfinancial houses, Merrill Lynch, Morgan Stanley, etc). They neverhave to pay this free money back; thus the primary dealers willpretty much do whatever the Fed asks if they want to stay in theprimary dealers "club."

The exact mechanism of repo use to support the DOW issimple. The primary dealers get repos in the morning issuance... and then buy DOW index futures (a market that is far smallerthan the open DOW trading volume). These futures prices thendrive the DOW itself because the larger population of investorsthink the "insider" futures buyers have access to specialinformation and are "ahead" of the market. Of course theydon't have special information . . . only special money in the formof repos.5

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The money used to manipulate the market is "Monopoly" money,funds created from nothing and given for nothing, just to prop up themarket. Not only is the Dow propped up but the gold market is helddown, since gold is considered a key indicator of inflation. If the goldprice were to soar, the Fed would have to increase interest rates totighten the money supply, collapsing the housing bubble and forcingthe government to raise inflation-adjusted payments for Social Security.Most traders who see this manipulation going on don't complain,because they think the Fed is rigging the market to their advantage.But gold investors have routinely been fleeced; and the PPT's secretmanipulations have created a stock market bubble that will takeeveryone's savings down when it bursts, as bubbles invariably do.Unwary investors are being induced to place risky bets on a nag on itslast legs. The people become complacent and accept bad leadership,bad policies and bad laws, because they think it is all "working"economically.

GATA's findings were largely ignored until they were confirmedin a carefully researched report released by John Embry of Sprott As-set Management of Toronto in August 2004.6 An update of the reportpublished in The Asia Times in 2005 included an introductory com-ment that warned, "the secrecy and growing involvement of private-sector actors threatens to foster enormous moral hazards." Moral hazardis the risk that the existence of a contract will change the way theparties act in the future; for example, a firm insured for fire may takefewer fire precautions. In this case, the hazard is that banks are tak-ing undue investment and lending risks, believing they will be bailedout from their folly because they always have been in the past. Thecomment continued:

Major financial institutions may be acting as de facto agencies of thestate, and thus not competing on a level playing field. There aresigns that repeated intervention in recent years has corrupted thesystem.7

In a June 2006 article titled "Plunge Protection or Enormous Hid-den Tax Revenues," Chuck Augustin was more blunt, writing:

. . . Today the markets are, without doubt, manipulated ona daily basis by the PPT. Government controlled "frontcompanies" such as Goldman-Sachs, JP Morgan and many otherscollect incredible revenues through market manipulation. Muchof this money is probably returned to government coffers,

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however, enormous sums of money are undoubtedly skimmedby participating companies and individuals.

The operation is similar to the Mafia-controlled gamblingoperations in Las Vegas during the 50's and 60's but much moreeffective and beneficial to all involved. Unlike the Mafia, thePPT has enormous advantages. The operation is immune toinvestigation or prosecution, there [are] unlimited funds availablethrough the Treasury and Federal Reserve, it has the ultimateinsider trading advantages, and it fully incorporates the spinand disinformation of government controlled media to swaymarkets in the desired direction. . . . Any investor can imaginethe riches they could obtain if they knew what direction stocks,commodities and currencies would move in a single day,especially if they could obtain unlimited funds with which toinvest! . . . [T]he PPT not only cheats investors out of trillions ofdollars, it also eliminates competition that refuses to be "bought"through mergers. Very soon now, only global companies andcorporations owned and controlled by the NWO elite will exist.8

The Exchange Stabilization Fund

Another regulatory mechanism that is as important — and as sus-pect — as the PPT is the "Exchange Stabilization Fund" (ESF). TheESF was authorized by Congress to keep sharp swings in the dollar'sexchange rate from "upsetting" financial markets. Market analystJim Sinclair writes:

Don't think of the ESF as an investment type, or even as a hedgefund. The ESF has no office, traders, or trading desk. It doesnot exist at all, aside from a fund of money and accounts to keeprecords. It seems that orders come from the US Secretary of theTreasury, or his designate (which could be a partner of one ofthe international investment banks he comes from), to intervenein markets .... Have you ever wondered how these firms seemto be trading for their own accounts on the side of thegovernment's interest? Have you wondered how these firmsalways seem to be profitable in their trading accounts, and howthey wield such enormous positions? . . . Not only [are they]executing ESF orders, but in all probability, [they are] coat-tailingtrades while pretending there is a Chinese Wall between ESForders and their own trading accounts.9

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This is all highly annoying to investors trying to place their betsbased on what the market "should" be doing, particularly when theyare competing with a bottomless source of accounting-entry funds. Aresearch firm reporting on the unexpectedly high quarterly profits ofGoldman Sachs in March 2004 wrote cynically:

[W]ho does Goldman have to thank for the latest outsizedquarterly earnings? Its "partner" in charge of financing theproprietary trading operation — Alan Greenspan.10

Henry Paulson headed Goldman Sachs before he succeeded to U.S.Treasury Secretary in June 2006, following in the steps of Robert Rubin,who headed that investment bank before he was appointed TreasurySecretary just in time for Goldman and other investment banks tocapitalize on the drastic devaluation of the Mexican peso in 1995. AnOctober 2006 article in the conservative American Spectatorcomplained that the U.S. Treasury was being turned into "GoldmanSachs South."11

Collusion Between Big Businessand Big Government: The CRMPG

Another organization suspected of colluding to rig markets is aprivate fraternity of big New York banks and investment houses calledthe Counterparty Risk Management Policy Group (CRMPG)."Counterparties" are parties to a contract, normally having a conflictof interest. The CRMPG's dealings were exposed in an article reprintedon the GATA website in September 2006, which was supported byreferences to the websites of the Federal Reserve and the CRMPG.12The author, who went by the name of Joe Stocks, maintained that theCRMPG was set up to bail out its members from financial difficulty bycombining forces to manipulate markets, and that it was all beingdone with the approval of the U.S. government.

Bailouts, notes Stocks, have been around for a long time. A seriesof them occurred in the 1990s, beginning with the Mexican bailoutfinalized on the evening Robert Rubin was sworn in as U.S. TreasurySecretary. This was followed by the 1998 "Asian crisis" and then bythe 1999 bailout of Long Term Capital Management (LTCM), a gianthedge fund dealing in derivatives. The CRMPG was formed in 1999to handle the LTCM crisis and to develop a policy that would protectthe financial world from another such threat in the future.

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In May 2002, the SEC expressed concern that a certain major bankcould become insolvent due to derivative issues. The problem bankwas JP Morgan Chase (JPM). By the end of the year, the CRMPG hadrecommended that a new bank be founded that would be a coordi-nated effort among the members of the CRMPG. The Federal Reserveand the SEC approved, and JPM's problems suddenly disappeared.A "stealth bailout" had been engineered.

The same year saw a big jump in the use of "program trades" -large-scale, computer-assisted trading of stocks and other securities,using systems in which decisions to buy and sell are triggered auto-matically by fluctuations in price. The major program traders weremembers of the CRMPG. Members that had not had large propri-etary trading units started them, including Citigroup, which wasquoted as saying something to the effect that there was now less riskin trading due to "new" innovations in the field. (New innovations inwhat - market rigging?) In early 2002, program trading was runningat about 25 percent of all shares traded on the New York Stock Ex-change. By 2006, it was closer to 60 percent. About a year later,concerns were expressed in The Wall Street Tournal that JPM wasmaking huge profits in the risky business of trading its own capital:

Profits have been increasing recently due to a small and lowprofile group of traders making big bets with the firm's money.Apparently, an eight man New York team has pulled in morethan $100M of trading profit with the company . . .

In 2004, Fed Chairman Alan Greenspan renewed concerns aboutthe exploding derivatives market, which had roughly doubled in sizesince 2000. He called on the major players to meet with the Fed todiscuss their derivative exposure, and to submit a report on the actionsit felt were necessary to keep the markets stable. The report, filed inJuly 2005, was addressed not to the head of the Fed but to the chairmanof Goldman Sachs. It was written in obscure banker jargon that is noteasy to follow, but you don't need to understand the details to get thesense that the nation's largest banks are colluding with their clientsand with each other to manipulate markets. The document is all aboutworking together for the greater good, but Stocks notes that this is nothow free markets work. The antitrust laws are all about preventingthis sort of collusion.

The report says, "we must preserve and strengthen the institutionalarrangements whereby, at the point of crisis, industry groups andindustry leaders, as well as supervisors, are prepared to work together

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in order to serve the larger and shared goal of financial stability." Itcontinues:

It is acceptable market practice for a financial intermediary'ssales and trading personnel to provide their sophisticatedcounterparties with general market levels or "indications,"including inputs and variables that may be used by thecounterparty to calculate a value for a complex transaction.Additionally, if a counterparty requests a price or level forpurposes of unwinding a specific complex transaction, and thefinancial intermediary is willing to provide such price or level, itis appropriate for the financial intermediary's sales and tradingpersonnel to furnish this information.14

Stocks writes, "the big banks are being encouraged to share infor-mation. We know there are two sides to each trade. . . . How wouldyou like to be on the other side of [one of their] pre-arranged trades?"He warns:

Their collusion at their highest ranks to secure the financialstability of the largest financial institutions could be at odds withthe investments of smaller institutions and may be at odds withthe small investor's long term investments and goals. WhenLTCM failed many of us could have not cared less .... Thebailout was simply put in place to save their own skins and theinvestors they serve.

. . . We require public corporations to provide open and fulldisclosure with the public, why should the CRMPG be allowedto collude to rig the market against free market principles? . . .The CRMPG report gives them the outline to execute theirstrategy in collusion at the expense ultimately of the small investor.... Moral hazard has led to moral decay at the highest ranksof our financial institutions. Move over PPT - the CRMPG is atthe wheel now.

Market Manipulation and Politics

At first blush, the notion that banks and the government areworking together to prevent a national economic crisis by manipulatingmarkets sounds benignly paternal and protective; but the wizard'smagic that makes money appear where none existed before can alsobe used to divest small investors of their savings and for partisan

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political gain. When the economy looks good, incumbents get re-elected. Michael Bolser has carefully tracked the Dow against the"repo" pool (the "free money" made available to favored investmentbanks). His charts show that the Fed has routinely "engineered" theDow and the dollar to make the economy appear sounder than it is.When Bolser tracked the rise in the stock market at the start of the

2003 Iraq War, for example, he found that "the 'Iraq War Rally' wasnothing of the sort. It was a wholly Fed-engineered exercise."15 TheOrwellian possibilities were suggested by Alex Wallenstein in an April

2004 article:

People would never give up their property rights voluntarily,directly. But if we can be sucked by Fed interest rate policy intono longer saving money (because stock market gains are so muchhigher than returns on CDs and savings bonds), and insteadinto throwing all of our retirement hopes and dreams at thestock market (that can be engineered into a catastrophic collapsein the blink of an eye), then we can all become "good little sheep."Then we can be made to march right up to be fleeced and thenslaughtered and meat-packed for later consumption by ourhandlers.16

Even if an economic collapse is not being engineered intentionally,many experts are convinced that one is coming, and soon. In a 2005book titled The Demise of the Dollar, Addison Wiggin observes:

How can the government promise to pay its debts when thetotal of that debt keeps getting higher and higher? It's alreadyout of control. ... In fact, a collapse is inevitable and it's only aquestion of how quickly it is going to occur. The consequenceswill be huge declines in the stock market, savings becomingworthless, and the bond market completely falling apart. ... Itwill be a rude awakening for everyone who has becomecomplacent about America's invulnerability.17

Is the Spider Losing Its Grip?

Hans Schicht has another slant on the approaching day of finan-cial reckoning. He noted in 2003 that David Rockefeller, the "masterspider," was then 88 years old:

[W]herever we look, his central command is seen to be fading.Neither is there a capable successor in sight to take over the

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reigns. Hyenas have begun picking up the pieces. Corruption isrife. Rivalry is breaking up the Empire.

What has been good for Rockefeller, has been a curse for theUnited States. Its citizens, government and country indebted tothe hilt, enslaved to his banks. . . . The country's industrial forcelost to overseas in consequence of strong dollar policies. ... Astrong dollar pursued purely in the interest of the banking em-pire and not for the best of the country. The USA, now de-graded to a service and consumer nation. . . .

With Rockefeller leaving the scene, sixty years of dollarimperialism are drawing to a close .... As one of the first signsof change, the mighty dollar has come under attack, directly onthe currency markets and indirectly through the bond markets.The day of financial reckoning is not far off any longer. . . . WithRockefeller's strong hand losing its grip and the old establishedorder fading, the world has entered a most dangerous transitionperiod, where anything could happen.18

Or Has the Spider Just Moved Its Nest?

With Rockefeller losing his grip and no replacement in sight, thereis evidence that the master spider may have moved its nest back acrossthe Atlantic to London, armed with a navy of pirate hedge funds thatrule the world out of the Cayman Islands. In a March 2007 article,Richard Freeman observed that the Cayman Islands are a BritishOverseas Protectorate. The Caymans function as "an epicenter forglobalization and financial warfare," with officials who have beenhand-selected by what Freeman calls the "Anglo-Dutch oligarchy":

For the Anglo-Dutch oligarchy, closely intertwined banksand hedge funds are its foremost instruments of power, to controlthe financial system, and loot and devastate companies andnations. . . . The three island specks in the Caribbean Sea, 480miles south from Florida's southern tip —which came to beknown as the Caymans, after the native word for crocodile(caymana) — had for centuries been a basing area for pirates whoattacked trading vessels. . . .

In 1993, the decision was made to turn this tourist trap intoa major financial power, through the adoption of a MutualFunds Law, to enable the easy incorporation and/ or registrationof hedge funds in a deregulated system. . . .The 1993 Mutual

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Web of Debt

Fund Law had its effect: with direction from the City of London,the number of hedge funds operating in the Cayman Islandsexploded: from 1,685 hedge funds in 1997, to 8,282 at the end ofthe third quarter 2006, a fivefold increase. Cayman Island hedgefunds are four-fifths of the world total. Globally, hedge fundscommand up to $30 trillion of deployable funds. . . . Accordingto reports, during 2005, the hedge funds were responsible for up to50% of the transactions on the London and New York stock exchanges.. . . The hedge funds are leading a frenzied wave of mergers andacquisitions, which reached nearly $4 trillion last year, and theyare buying up and stripping down companies from auto partsproducer Delphi and Texas power utility TXU, to Office EquitiesProperties, to hundreds of thousands of apartments in Berlinand Dresden, Germany. This has led to hundreds of thousandsof workers being laid off.

They are assisted by their Wall Street allies. Taken altogether,the hedge funds, with money borrowed from the world's biggestcommercial and investment banks, have pushed the world'sderivatives bubble well past $600 trillion in nominal value, andput the world on the path of the biggest financial disintegrationin modern history.19

The Cracking Economic Egg

The magnitude of the banking crisis and the desperate attemptsto cover it up became apparent in June 2007, when two hedge fundsbelonging to Bear Stearns Company went bankrupt over derivativesbets involving subprime mortgages gone wrong. The parties werebeing leaned on to settle quietly, to avoid revealing that their derivativeswere worth far less than claimed. But as Adrian Douglas observedin a June 30 article called "Derivatives" in LeMetropoleCafe.com:

This is not just an ugly, non-malignant tumor that can beconveniently cut off. This massive financial activity that bets onthe outcome of the pricing of the underlying assets has corruptedthe system such that those who would be responsible for payingout orders of magnitude more money than they have if the betsgo against them are sucked into a black hole of moral and ethicaldestitution as they have no other choice but to manipulate theprice of the underlying assets to prevent financial ruin.

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Chapter 33 - Maintaining the Illusion

While derivatives may appear to be complex instruments, Douglassays the concept is actually simple: they are insurance contracts againstsomething happening, such as interest rates going up or the stockmarket going down. Unlike with ordinary insurance policies, however,these are not catastrophic risks that happen infrequently. They willhappen eventually. And if a payout event is triggered, "unlike whena house burns down, there will not be just a handful of claims on anyone day, payouts will be due in the trillions of dollars on the sameday. It is the financial equivalent of a hurricane Katrina hitting everyUS city on the same day!" Douglas observes:

Instead of stopping this idiotic sham business from growingto galactic proportions, all the authorities, and all the banks,and all the major financial institutions around the world haveheralded it as the best thing since sliced bread. But now allthese players are complicit in the crime. They are all on the hook.The stakes are now too high. They must manipulate theunderlying assets on a daily basis to prevent triggering the payoutof a major derivative event.

Derivatives are a bet against volatility. Guess what hashappened? Surprise, surprise! Volatility has vanished. TheVIX [the Chicago Board Options Exchange Volatility Index] lookslike an ECG when the patient has died! Gold has an unofficial$6 rule. The DOW is not allowed to drop more than 200 pointsand it must rally the following day. Interest rates must not rise,if they do the FED must issue more of their now secret M3, ship itoffshore to the Caribbean and pretend that an unknown foreign bankis buying US Treasuries like crazy.

But the sham is coming unglued because the huge excessliquidity that has been injected into the system to prevent it fromimploding is showing up as asset bubbles all over the place andshortages of raw materials are everywhere. There is massiveinflation going on. There is no major economy in the world notinflating their money supply by less than 10% annually.

When the derivative buyers realize what is going on and quitpaying premiums for insurance that doesn't exist, says Douglas, "therewill be a whole new definition of volatility!" And that brings us backto the parasite's challenge. When the bubble collapses, the bankingempire that has been built on it must collapse as well ....

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Chapter 34MELTDOWN:THE SECRET BANKRUPTCYOF THE BANKS

"See what you have done!" the Witch screamed. "In a minute Ishall melt away.". . . With these words the Witch fell down in a brown,melted, shapeless mass and began to spread over the clean boards of thekitchen floor.

- The Wonderful Wizard ofOz,"The Search for the Wicked Witch"

The debt bubble is showing clear signs of imploding, andwhen it does it is likely to liquidate the private banking empirethat has been built on it. To prevent that financial meltdown, theWitches of Wall Street and their European affiliates have resorted todesperate measures, including a giant derivatives bubble that is jeop-ardizing the whole shaky system. In a February 2004 article called"The Coming Storm," the London Economist warned that top banksaround the world were massively exposed to high-risk derivatives,and that there was a very real risk of an industry-wide meltdown.The situation was compared to that before the 1998 collapse of LongTerm Capital Management, when "[b]ets went spectacularly wrongafter Russia defaulted; financial markets went berserk, and LTCM, avery large hedge fund, had to be rescued by its bankers at the behestof the Federal Reserve."1

John Hoefle wrote in 2002 that the Fed had been quietly rescuingbanks ever since. He contended that the banking system actually wentbankrupt in the late 1980s, with the collapse of the junk bond marketand the real estate bubble of that decade. The savings and loan sectorcollapsed, along with nearly every large Texas bank; and that wasjust the tip of the iceberg:

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Citicorp was secretly taken over by the Federal Reserve in 1989,shotgun mergers were arranged for other giant banks, backdoorbailouts were given through the Fed's lending mechanisms, andbank examiners were ordered to ignore bad loans. Thesemeasures, coupled with a headlong rush into derivatives and otherforms of speculation, gave the banks a veneer of solvency while actuallydestroying what was left of the U.S. banking system.

The big banks were in trouble because of big gambles that had notpaid off - Third World loans that had gone into default, giant corpo-rations that had gone bankrupt, massive derivative bets gone wrong.Like with the bankrupt giant Enron, profound economic weaknesswas masked by phony accounting that created a "veneer of solvency."Hoefle wrote:

The U.S. banks - especially the derivatives giants - are mastersat this game, counting trillions of dollars of worthless IOUs -derivatives, overblown assets, and unpayable debts - on theirbooks at face value, in order to appear solvent. In the late 1980s,the term "zombie" was used to refer to banks which manifestedsome mechanical signs of life but were in fact dead.

Between 1984 and 2002, bank failures were accompanied by awave of consolidations and takeovers that reduced the number of banksby 45 percent. The top seven banks were consolidated into three -Citigroup, JP Morgan Chase, and Bank of America. Hoefle wrote:

The result of all these mergers is a group of much larger, and farmore bankrupt, giant banks. . . . [A] similar process has playedout worldwide. . . . The global list also includes two institutionswhich specialize in pumping up the U.S. real estate bubble. BothFannie Mae and Freddie Mac specialize in converting mortgagesinto mortgage-backed securities, and will vaporize when the U.S.housing bubble pops.

The zombies, said Hoefle, had now taken over the asylum. In2002, Bank One was rumored to be a buyer for the zombie giant JPMorgan Chase. (This merger actually occurred in 2004.) "It was ludi-crous," Hoefle wrote, since on paper JP Morgan Chase had twice theassets of Bank One. "Still, letting Morgan fail, which it seems deter-mined to do, is clearly unacceptable from the standpoint of the WhiteHouse/Federal Reserve Plunge Protection Team."2

In a February 2004 article titled "Cooking the Books: U.S. Banks AreGiant Casinos," Michael Edward concurred. He wrote that U.S. banks

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were engaging in "smoke and mirror accounting," in which they weremerging with each other in order to hide their derivative losses with"paper asset" bookkeeping:

. .. [T]he public is being conned into thinking that U.S. banksare still solvent because they show "gains" in their stock "paper"value. If the U.S. markets were not manipulated, U.S. banks wouldcollapse overnight along with the entire U.S. economy.

. .. Astronomical losses for U.S. banks (as well as most worldbanks) have been concealed with mispriced derivatives. Theproblem with this is that these losses don't have to be reportedto shareholders, so in all truth and reality, many U.S. banks arealready insolvent. What that means is that U.S. banks have becomenothing less than a Ponzi Scheme paying account holders with otheraccount holder assets or deposits.

. . . Robbing Peter to pay Paul has never worked, and everyPonzi Scheme (illegal pyramid scam) has always ended abruptlywith great losses for every person who invested in them. U.S.bank account holders are about to find this out.3

Has Private Commercial Banking Become Obsolete?

According to these commentators, the secret epidemic of bankinsolvencies is not just the result of individual mismanagement andoverreaching but marks the inevitable end times of a Ponzi schemethat is inherently unsustainable. When the dollar was on the goldstandard, banks had to deal with periodic bank "runs" because theydid not have sufficient gold to cover their transactions. The FederalReserve was instituted early in the twentieth century to provide backupmoney to prevent such runs. That effort was followed 20 years laterby the worst depression in modern history. The gold standard wasthen abandoned, allowing larger and larger debt bubbles to flood thesystem, resulting in the derivative and housing crises looming today.When those bubbles pop, the only option may be another change inthe rules of the game, a Copernican shift of the sort envisioned byProfessor Liu.

Robert Guttman, Professor of Economics at Hofstra University inNew York, is another academician who feels the current bankingsystem may have outlived its usefulness. In a 1994 text called HowCredit-Money Shapes the Economy, he states, "It may well be that banks,as currently constituted, are in the process of becoming obsolete. Increasinglytheir traditional functions can be carried out more effectively by other

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institutions . . . ." He goes on:

American banks have been hit over the last two decades by avariety of adverse developments. Their traditional functions,taking deposits and making loans, have been subjected toincreasing competition from less-regulated institutions. In theface of such market erosion on both sides of their balance-sheetledger, the banks have had to find new profit opportunities. . . .Even though most commercial banks have managed to survivethe surge in bad-debt losses . .., they still face major competitivethreats from less-regulated institutions. It is doubtful whetherthey can stop the market inroads made by pension funds, mutualfunds, investment banks, and other institutions that benefit fromthe "marketization" of our financial system. . . . The revolutionin computer and communications technologies has enabledothers to access and process data at low cost. Neither lenders norborrowers need banks anymore. Both sides may find it increasinglymore appealing to deal directly with each other}

At the time he was writing, hundreds of banks had failed afterwriting off large chunks of non-performing loans to developing coun-tries, farmers, oil drillers, real estate developers, and takeover artists.Commercial banks and thrifts facing growing bad-debt losses wereforced to liquidate assets and tighten credit terms, producing a creditcrunch that choked off growth. The banks were also facing growingcompetition from investment pools such as pension funds and mutualfunds. The banks responded with a dramatic shift away from loans,their core business, to liquid bundles of claims sold as securities. Thecommercial banking business was also eroding, as corporationsswitched from loans to securities for funding. FDIC insurance, whichwas originally intended to protect individual savers against loss, tookon the quite different function of bailing out failing institutions. "Sucha shift in focus led directly to adoption of the FDIC's 'too-big-to-fail'policy in 1984," Guttman wrote. "The result has been increasingly costlygovernment intervention which now has bankrupted the system."

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The Shady World of Investment Banking

As banks have lost profits in the competitive commercial lendingbusiness, they have had to expand into investment banking to remainprofitable. That expansion was facilitated in 1999, when the Glass-Steagall Act, which forbade commercial and investment banking inthe same institutions, was repealed. Investment banking includescorporate fund-raising, mergers and acquisitions, brokering trades,and trading for the bank's own account.5 Despite this merger ofbanking functions, however, profits continued to falter. According toa 2002 publication called "Growing Profits Under Pressure" by theBoston Consulting Group:

As the effects of the economic downturn continue to erodecorporate profits, large commercial banks - both global andregional - face growing pressures on their corporate- and

investment-banking businesses From the outside, commercial

banks confront increasing competition - particularly from globalinvestment banks . . . that are competing more vigorously forcommercial banks' traditional corporate transactions. Inaddition, commercial banks are finding that their corporateclients are increasingly becoming their rivals. . . . [C]ompaniestoday...meet more of their own banking needs themselves ....In recent years, many commercial banks have acquiredinvestment banks, hoping to gain access to new clients .... But. . . investment-banking revenues have suffered with the declinein mergers and acquisitions, equity capital markets, and tradingactivities. All too often, costs have continued to rise.6

An article in the June 2006 Economist reported that even with thesuccess of bank trading departments, the overall share values of in-vestment banks were falling. Evidently this was because investorssuspected that the banks' returns had been souped up by trading withborrowed money, and they feared the risks involved.7

Meanwhile, banking as a public service has been lost to the all-consuming quest for profits. As noted in Chapter 18, investment banksmake most of their profits from trading for their own accounts ratherthan from servicing customers. According to William Hummel inMoney: What It Is, How It Works, the ten largest U.S. banks hold almosthalf the country's total banking assets. These banks, called "money

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market banks" or "money center banks," include Citibank, JPMorganChase, and Bank of America. They are large conglomerates thatcombine commercial banking with investment banking. However,very little of their business is what we normally think of as banking - takingdeposits, providing checking services, and making consumer or smallbusiness loans. Rather, says Hummel, they mainly engage in fouractivities:

• Portfolio business - asset accumulation and funding for their ownaccounts, something they do by borrowing money cheaply andselling the acquired assets at a premium;

• Corporate finance - corporate lending and public offerings;

• Distribution - the sale of the banks' own securities, includingtreasuries, municipal securities, and Euro CDs; and

• Trading - largely market-making.8

Recall that market makers are the players chiefly engaged in nakedshort selling, an inherently fraudulent practice. (Chapter 19.) PatrickByrne, who has been instrumental in exposing the naked shortingscandal, states that as much as 75 percent of the profits of biginvestment banks may come from their role as "prime brokers" —something he says is a fancy word for the stock loan business, orrenting the same stock several times over.9 Stocks are "rented" forthe purpose of selling them short. According to an article in Forbes,"prime brokerage" is "the business of catering to hedge funds;particularly, lending securities to funds so they can execute their tradingstrategies."10 We've seen that hedge funds are groups of investorscolluding to acquire companies and bleed them of their assets, speculatein derivatives, manipulate markets, and otherwise make profits forthemselves at the expense of workers and smaller investors.

The big money center banks facilitating these dubious practicesare also the banks that must periodically be bailed out by the Fed andthe government because they are supposedly "too big to fail." Yetthese banks are not even providing what we normally think of asbanking services! They are "too big to fail" only because they areresponsible for a giant Ponzi scheme that has the entire economy in itsdeath grip. They have created a perilous derivatives bubble that hasgenerated billions of dollars in short-term profits but has destroyedthe financial system in the process. Collusion among mega-banks hasmade derivative trading less risky, but this has not served the larger

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community but rather has hurt small investors and the fledglingcorporations targeted by "vulture capitalism." The fleas' gain hasbeen the dog's loss.

The Secret Nationalization of the Banks

In a March 2007 article called "Too Big to Bail (Out)," Dave Lewisobserves that the next major bank bailout may exceed the capacity ofthe taxpayers to keep the private banking boat afloat. Lewis is a veteranWall Street trader who remembers the 1980s, when banks actuallycould fail. The "too big to fail" concept came in at the end of the1980s, when the savings and loans collapsed and Citibank lost 50percent of its share price. In 1989, Congress passed the FinancialInstitutions Reform, Recovery and Enforcement Act, which bailed outthe S&Ls with taxpayer money. Citibank's share price also recoupedits losses. Then in 1991, a Wall Street investment bank called SalomonBrothers threatened bankruptcy, after it was caught submitting falsebids for U.S. Treasury securities and the New York Fed Chiefannounced that the bank would no longer be able to participate inTreasury auctions. Warren Buffett, whose company owned 12 percentof the stock of Salomon Brothers, negotiated heavily with TreasurySecretary Nicholas Brady; and Salomon Brothers was saved. Afterthat, says Lewis, "too big to fail" became standard policy:

It is now 16 years later, the thin edge of the wedge has doneits thing and the circuit is now complete. The financial industryhas been, in a sense, nationalized. Credit rating agencies . . . willnow simply assume government support for large financialinstitutions. . . . [But] there are limits to the amount of supporteven the mighty US taxpayers can provide .... If the derivativesinspired collapse of LTCM was a problem how much moreproblematic would be a similarly inspired derivatives collapseat JPMorgan given their US$62.6T in exposure. According tothe Office of the Comptroller of the Currency . . ., this US$62.6Tin derivatives exposure is funded by assets of only US$1.2T. . . .And who will fill in the gap, US taxpayers? Are we now willingto upend social harmony, or what little that remains, by breakingpromises of social security and other "entitlements" in order to keepbig banks that mismanaged their investment portfolios afloat? Andall this, by the way, while the upper class has been enjoying its

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biggest tax breaks in decades.

. . . The $150B bail out of the S&Ls in the late 80s caused arecession and cost George Bush the Elder a second term. I wonderwhat effects a $1T or even $5T bail out would cause .... Shortof a military dictatorship, I can't imagine a bail out of that sizefor that reason passing through Congress. . . .

What if the problem arises due to a collapse of someintervention scheme? Will US taxpayers be expected to bail outa covert scheme to keep the price of gold down? or oil? More tothe point, could US taxpayers bail out such schemes? . . . [I]n theevent support was needed and could be obtained under theseconditions, why would anyone want to buy US bonds?11

If the financial industry has indeed been nationalized, and if wethe taxpayers are footing the bill, we can and should demand a bank-ing system that serves the taxpayers' interests rather than working atcross-purposes with them.

The Systemic Bankruptcy of the Banks

Only a few big banks are considered too big to fail, entitling themto taxpayer bailout; but in some sense, all banks operating on the frac-tional reserve system are teetering on bankruptcy. Recall the defini-tion of the term: "being unable to pay one's debts; being insolvent;having liabilities in excess of a reasonable market value of assets held."In an article called "Fractional Reserve Banking," Murray Rothbardput the problem like this:

[Depositors] think of their checking account as equivalent toa warehouse receipt. If they put a chair in a warehouse beforegoing on a trip, they expect to get the chair back whenever theypresent the receipt. Unfortunately, while banks depend on thewarehouse analogy, the depositors are systematically deluded.Their money ain't there.

An honest warehouse makes sure that the goods entrustedto its care are there, in its storeroom or vault. But banks operatevery differently... Banks make money by literally creating moneyout of thin air, nowadays exclusively deposits rather than banknotes. This sort of swindling or counterfeiting is dignified by theterm "fractional-reserve banking," which means that bankdeposits are backed by only a small fraction of the cash they

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Web of Debt

promise to have at hand and redeem.12

Before 1913, if too many of a bank's depositors came for theirmoney at one time, the bank would have come up short and wouldhave had to close its doors. That was true until the Federal ReserveAct shored up the system by allowing troubled banks to "borrow"money from the Federal Reserve, which could create it on the spot byselling government securities to a select group of banks that createdthe money as bookkeeping entries on their books. By rights, Rothbardsaid, the banks should be put into bankruptcy and the bankers shouldbe jailed as embezzlers, just as they would have been before theysucceeded in getting laws passed that protected their swindling.Instead, big banks are assured of being bailed out from their folly,encouraging them to take huge risks because they are confident ofbeing rescued if things go amiss. This "moral hazard" has now beenbuilt into the decision-making process. But small businesses don't getbailed out when they make risky decisions that put them under water.Why should big banks have that luxury? In a "free" market, big banksshould be free to fail like any other business. It would be different ifthey actually were indispensable to the economy, as they claim; butthese global mega-banks spend most of their time and resources makingprofits for themselves, at the expense of the small consumer, the smallinvestor, and small countries.

There are more efficient ways to get the banking services we needthan by continually feeding and maintaining the parasitic bankingmachine we have now. It may be time to cut the mega-banks loosefrom the Fed's apron strings and let them deal with the free marketforces they purport to believe in. Without the collusion of the PlungeProtection Team, the CRMPG and the Federal Reserve, some majorbanks could soon wind up in bankruptcy. The Federal DepositInsurance Corporation (FDIC) deals with bankrupt banks by puttingthem into receivership, a form of bankruptcy in which a company canavoid liquidation by reorganizing with the help of a court-appointedtrustee. When a bank is put into receivership, the trustee is the FDIC,an agency of the federal government. In return for bailing the bankout, the FDIC has the option of retaining the bank as a public asset.Why this might not be the disaster for the larger community that hasbeen predicted, and might even work out to the public's benefit, isdiscussed in Section VI.

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Chapter 34 - Meltdown

Shelter from the Storm

What can we do to protect ourselves and our assets in themeantime? Like Auntie Em, market "bears" warn to run for the cellar.They say to prepare for the coming storm by getting out of U.S. stocks,the U.S. dollar, and excess residential real estate, and to invest insteadin gold and silver, precious metal stocks, oil stocks, foreign stocks, andforeign currencies. Many good books and financial newsletters areavailable on this subject.13

People in serious Doomsday mode go further. They advise storingcanned and dry food, drinking water, and organic seeds for sproutingand planting; investing in a water purifier, light source, stove andheater that don't depend on functioning electrical outlets; keeping extracash in the family safe for when the banks suddenly close their doors;and storing gold and silver coins for when paper money becomesworthless. They recommend starting a garden in the backyard, ahydroponic garden (plants grown in water), or a window-box garden;or joining a local communal farming project. They note that peoplefacing financial collapse in other countries are better prepared to dealwith that sort of disaster than Americans are, because they have beenfarming their own small gardens and surviving in barter economiesfor centuries. Americans need to study, form groups, and practice inorder to be prepared. Again, many good Internet websites are availableon this subject. Community currency options are discussed in Chapter36.

Those are all prudent alternatives in the event of economic collapse;but in the happier ending to our economic fairytale, the financial systemwould be salvaged before it collapses. We can stock the cellar just incase there is a cyclone, but to succumb to the fear of scarcity is to letthe Wicked Witch prevail, to let the cartel once again wind up with allthe houses and the stock bargains. What then of the American dream,the liberty and justice for all in a land of equal opportunity promisedby the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution? The ironyis that our economic nightmare is built on an illusion. We have beentricked into believing we are inextricably mired in debt, when the"debt" is for an advance of "credit" that was ours all along. Whiletrouble boils and bubbles in the pots of the Witches of Wall Street, theGood Witch stands waiting in the wings, waiting for us to rememberour magic slippers and come into our power ....

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Section V

THE MAGIC SLIPPERS:TAKING BACKTHE MONEY POWER

"You had to find it out for yourself. Now those magic slipperswill take you home in two seconds."

- Glinda the Good Witch to Dorothy

Chapter 35STEPPING FROM SCARCITY INTOTECHNICOLOR ABUNDANCE

Somewhere over the rainbowSkies are blue,

And the dreams that you dare to dreamReally do come true.

- Song immortalized by Judy Garlandin The Wizard of Oz

One of the most dramatic scenes in the MGM version of TheWizard of Oz comes when Dorothy's cyclone-tossed housefalls from the sky. The world transforms, as she opens the door andsteps from the black and white barrenness of a Kansas farmhouse intothe technicolor wonderland of Oz. The world transforms again whenDorothy and her companions don green-colored glasses as they enterthe Emerald City. In the Wizard's world, reality can be changed justby looking at things differently. Historian David Parker wrote ofBaum's fairytale:

[T]he book emphasized an aspect of theosophy that NormanVincent Peale would later call "the power of positive thinking":theosophy led to "a new upbeat and positive psychology" that"opposed all kinds of negative thinking - especially fear, worryand anxiety." It was through this positive thinking, and notthrough any magic of the Wizard, that Dorothy and hercompanions (as well as everyone else in Oz) got what theywanted.1

It would become a popular Hollywood theme - Dumbo's magicfeather, Polly anna's irrepressible positive thinking, the Music Man's"think system" for making beautiful music, the "Unsinkable" MollyBrown. Thinking positively was not just the stuff of children's fantasies

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but was deeply ingrained in the American psyche. "I have learned,"said Henry David Thoreau, "that if one advances confidently in thedirection of his dreams, and endeavors to live the life he has imagined,he will meet with a success unexpected in common hours." WilliamJames, another nineteenth century American philosopher, said, "Thegreatest discovery of my generation is that a human being can alterhis life by altering his attitudes of mind." Franklin Roosevelt broadcastthis upbeat message in his Depression-era "fireside chats," in whichhe entered people's homes through that exciting new medium the radioand galvanized the country with encouraging words. "The only thingwe have to fear is fear itself," he said in 1933, when the "enemy" waspoverty and unemployment. Andrew Carnegie, one of the multi-millionaire Robber Barons, was another firm believer in achievementthrough positive thinking. "It is the mind that makes the body rich,"he maintained. Believing that financial success could be reduced to asimple formula, he commissioned a newspaper reporter namedNapoleon Hill to interview over 500 millionaires to discover the commonthreads of their success. Hill then memorialized the results in hisbestselling book Think and Grow Rich.

Thinking positively was a trait of the Robber Barons themselves,who for all their mischief were a characteristically Americanphenomenon. They thought big. If there was a criminal element totheir thinking, it was a crime the law had not yet codified. The WildWest, the Gold Rush, the Gilded Age, the Roaring Twenties — all werepart of the wild and reckless youth of the nation. The Robber Baronswere a product of the American capitalist spirit, the spirit of believingin what you want and making it happen. An aspect of a "free" marketis the freedom to steal, which is why economics must be temperedwith the Constitution and the law. That was the fatal flaw in thelaissez-faire free market economics of the nineteenth century: it allowedopportunists to infiltrate and monopolize industry.

America's Founding Fathers saw the necessity of designing agovernment that would protect the inalienable rights of the peoplefrom the power grabs of the unscrupulous. Today we generally thinkwe want less government, not more; but our forebears had a differentview of the function of government. The Declaration of Independencedeclared:

[W]e hold these Truths to be self evident, that all men are createdequal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certainunalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the

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Pursuit of Happiness - That to secure these Rights, Governmentsare instituted among Men, deriving their just Powers from the Consentof the Governed.

The capitalist spirit of achieving one's dreams needed to operatewithin an infrastructure that insured and supported a fair race.Naming the villains and locking them up could help temporarily; butto create a millennial Utopia, the legal edifice itself had to be secured.

Waking from the Spell

When Frank Baum wrote his famous fairytale at the turn of thetwentieth century, the notion that a life of scarcity could be transformedin an instant into one of universal abundance did not seem entirelyfar-fetched. It was an era of miracles, when scientists were bringingelectricity, mechanized transportation, and the promise of free energyto America. Explosive technological advances evoked visions of aUtopian future filled with modern transportation and communicationfacilities, along with jobs, housing and food for all.2

Catapulting the country into universal abundance was possible,but it did not happen. Instead, a darker form of witchcraft enthralledthe country. By the time The Wizard of Oz was made into a musicalin the 1930s, the economy had again fallen into a major depression.Yip Harburg, who wrote the lyrics to "Somewhere Over the Rain-bow," had a long list of hit songs, including "Brother, Can You Sparea Dime?" Harburg was not actually a member of the CommunistParty, but he was a staunch advocate of a variety of left-leaning causes.His Hollywood career came to a halt when he was blacklisted in the1950s, another visionary fallen to an agenda of fear and control.

By the end of the twentieth century, however, science had againreached a stage of development where abundance for all seemed withinreach. Buckminster Fuller said in 1980:

We are blessed with technology that would be indescribable toour forefathers. We have the wherewithal, the know-it-all tofeed everybody, clothe everybody, and give every human onEarth a chance. We know now what we could never have knownbefore - that we now have the option for all humanity to make itsuccessfully on this planet in this lifetime. Whether it is to be Utopiaor Oblivion will be a touch-and-go relay race right up to thefinal moment.

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The race between Utopia and Oblivion reflects two different visionsof reality. One sees a world capable of providing for all. The othersees a world that is too small for its inhabitants, requiring theannihilation of large segments of the population if the rest are tosurvive. The prevailing scarcity mentality focuses on shortages of oil,water and food. But the real shortage, as Benjamin Franklin explainedto his English listeners in the eighteenth century, is in the medium ofexchange. If sufficient money could be made available to developalternative sources of energy, alternative means of extracting waterfrom the environment, and more efficient ways of growing food, therecould be abundance for all. The notion that the government couldsimply print the money it needs is considered unrealistically Utopianand inflationary; yet banks create money all the time. The chief reasonthe U.S. government can't do it is that a private banking cartel alreadyhas a monopoly on the practice.

Growth in M3 is no longer officially being reported, but by 2007,reliable private sources put it at 11 percent per year.3 That means thatover one trillion dollars are now being added to the economy annually.Where does this new money come from? It couldn't have come fromnew infusions of gold, since the country went off the gold standard in1933. All of this additional money must have been created by banksas loans. As soon as the loans are paid off, the money has to beborrowed all over again, just to keep money in the system; and it ishere that we find the real cause of global scarcity: somebody is payinginterest on most of the money in the world all of the time. A dollar accruinginterest at 5 percent, compounded annually, becomes two dollars inabout 14 years. At that rate, banks siphon off as much money in interestevery 24 years as there was in the entire world 14 years earlier} Thatexplains why M3 has increased by 100 percent or more every 14 yearssince the Federal Reserve first started tracking it in 1959. Accordingto a Fed chart titled "M3 Money Stock," M3 was about $300 billion in1959. In 1973,14 years later, it had grown to $900 billion. In 1987, 14

' This assumes that the debt is not paid but just keeps compounding, but in thesystem as a whole, that would be true. When old loans get paid off, debt-moneyis extinguished, so new loans must continually be taken out just to keep themoney supply at its current level. And since banks create the principal but notthe interest necessary to pay off their loans, someone somewhere has tocontinually be taking out new loans to create the money to cover the interest dueon this collective debt. Interest then continually accrues on these new loans,compounding the interest due on the whole.

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years after that, it was $3,500 billion; and in 2001, 14 years after that,it was $7,200 billion.4 To meet the huge interest burden required toservice all this money-built-on-debt, the money supply mustcontinually expand; and for that to happen, borrowers must continuallygo deeper into debt, merchants must continually raise their prices,and the odd men out in the bankers' game of musical chairs mustcontinue to lose their property to the banks. Wars, competition andstrife are the inevitable results of this scarcity-driven system.

The obvious solution is to eliminate the parasitic banking schemethat is feeding on the world's prosperity. But how? The Witches ofWall Street are not likely to release their vice-like grip without somesort of revolution; and a violent revolution would probably fail, becausethe world's most feared military machine is already in the hands ofthe money cartel. Violent revolution would just furnish them with anexcuse to test their equipment. The first American Revolution wasfought before tasers, lasers, tear gas, armored tanks, and depleteduranium weapons.

Fortunately or unfortunately, in the eye of today's economiccyclone, we may have to do no more than watch and wait, as theglobal pyramid scheme collapses of its own weight. In the end, whatis likely to bring the house of cards down is that the Robber Baronshave lost control of the propaganda machine. Their intellectual foe isthe Internet, that last bastion of free speech, where even the commonblogger can find a voice. As President John Adams is quoted as sayingof the revolution of his day:

The Revolution was effected before the war commenced. TheRevolution was in the hearts and minds of the people. . . . Thisradical change in the principles, opinions, sentiments, and affectionsof the people, was the real American Revolution.

Today the corporate media are gradually losing control of publicopinion; but the Money Machine remains shrouded in mystery, largelybecause the subject is so complex and forbidding. Richard Russell is arespected financial analyst who has been publishing The Dow TheoryLetter for over half a century. He observes:

The creation of money is a total mystery to probably 99 percentof the US population, and that most definitely includes the Congressand the Senate. The takeover of US money creation by the Fed is oneof the most mysterious and ominous acts in US history. . . . Thelegality of the Federal Reserve has never been "tried" before theUS Supreme Court.5

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We the people could try bringing suit before the Supreme Court;but the courts, like the major media, are now largely under the spell ofthe financial/corporate cartel. There are honest and committed judges,congresspersons and reporters who could be approached; but to makea real impact will take a vigorous movement from an awakened andaroused populace ready to be heard and make a difference, a popularforce too strong to be ignored. When a certain critical mass of peoplehas awakened, the curtain can be thrown aside and the Wizard's handcan be exposed. But before we can build a movement, we need to beready with an action plan, an ark that will keep us afloat when theflood hits. What sort of ark might that be? We'll begin by looking at anumber of alternative models that have been developed around theworld.

Perpetual Christmas in Guardiagrele, Italy

One interesting experiment in alternative financing was reportedin the October 7, 2000 Wall Street Tournal. It was the brainchild ofProfessor Giacinto Auriti, a wealthy local academic in Guardiagrele,Italy. According to the Tournal:

Prof. Auriti. . . hopes to convince the world that central bankersare the biggest con artists in modern history. His main thesis:For centuries, central banks have been robbing the common manby the way they put new money in circulation. Rather thandivide the new cash among the people, they lend it through thebanking system, at interest. This practice, he argues, makes thecentral banks the money's owners and makes everyone else theirdebtors. He goes on to conclude that this debt-based money hasroughly half the purchasing power it would have if it were issueddirectly to the populace, free.

To prove his thesis, Professor Auriti printed up and issued his owndebt-free bills, called simec. He agreed to trade simec for lire, and toredeem each simec for two lire from local merchants. The result:

Armed with their simec, the townsfolk — and later theirneighbors elsewhere in central Italy's Abruzzo region — stormedparticipating stores to snap up smoked prosciutto, designer shoesand other goods at just half the lire price.

"At first, people thought this can't be true, there must be arip-off hidden somewhere," says Antonella Di Cocco, a guide ata local museum. "But once people realized that the shopkeepers

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were the only ones taking the risk, they just ran to buy all theseextravagant things they never really needed." Often, they raidedtheir savings accounts in the process.

The participating shopkeepers, some of whom barely ekedout a living before the simec bonanza, couldn't have been happier."Every day was Christmas," Pietro Ricci recalls from behind thecounter of his cavernous haberdashery.

Neither Mr. Ricci nor his fellow merchants were stuck withtheir simec for long. Once a week, they turned them in to Prof.Auriti, recouping the full price of their goods.

"We doubled the money in people's pockets, injecting bloodinto a lifeless body," says Prof. Auriti. "People were so happy,they thought they were dreaming."

Non-participating stores, meanwhile, remained empty weekafter week. ... By mid-August, says the professor, a total ofabout 2.5 billion simec had circulated.6

The professor had primed the pump by doubling the town's moneysupply. As a result, goods that had been sitting on the shelves for lackof purchasing power started to move. The professor himself lost moneyon the deal, since he was redeeming the simec at twice what he hadcharged for them; but the local merchants liked the result so muchthat they eventually took over the project. When there were enoughsimec in circulation for the system to work without new money, theprofessor was relieved of having to put his own money into the venture.The obvious limitation of his system is that it requires a wealthy localbenefactor to get it going. Ideally, the benefactor would be thegovernment itself, issuing permanent money in the form of the nationalcurrency.

Private Silver and Gold Exchanges

An option that appeals to people concerned with the soundness ofthe dollar is to trade in privately-issued precious metal coins. Privatesilver and gold exchanges go back for centuries. The U.S. dollar isdefined in the Constitution in terms of silver, and at one time peoplecould bring their own silver to the mint to be turned into coins. In1998, a private non-profit organization call NORFED (the NationalOrganization for the Repeal of the Federal Reserve Act and the InternalRevenue Code) began issuing a currency called the Liberty Dollar,which was backed by gold and silver. Liberty Dollars took the form of

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minted metal pieces, gold and silver certificates, and electroniccurrency. Legally, said NORFED's website, the Liberty Dollarcertificates were receipts guaranteeing that the holder had ownershipof a certain sum of silver or gold stored in a warehouse in Coeurd'Alene, Idaho. The silver was insured and audited monthly, and theCertificates were reported to be more difficult to counterfeit even thanFederal Reserve Notes. Liberty Dollars were marketed at a discountand were exchanged at participating neighborhood stores dollar fordollar with U.S. dollars. The silver that backed the NORFEDCertificates, however, was only about half the face value of theCertificates (depending on the variable silver market). The differencewent to NORFED for its costs and to support its efforts to have theFederal Reserve and federal income tax abolished.7

By 2006, NORFED claimed a circulation of $20 million, makingthe Liberty Dollar the second most popular American currency afterFederal Reserve Notes. That was true until September 2006, when aspokesman for the U.S. Mint declared the coins to be illegal becausethey could be confused with U.S. coins. "The United States Mint isthe only entity that can produce coins," said the spokesman. InNovember 2007, the Liberty Dollar offices were raided by the FBI andthe U.S. Secret Service. The company's owner sent an email tosupporters saying the FBI had taken not only all the gold, silver, andplatinum but almost two tons of "Ron Paul Dollars" — commemorativecoins stamped with the likeness of Presidential candidate Ron Paul(R-TX), the fearless champion of the money reform camp seeking tohave the Federal Reserve abolished. The FBI also seized computersand files and froze the Liberty Dollar bank accounts. The seizurewarrant stated that it was issued for counterfeiting, money laundering,mail fraud, wire fraud, and conspiracy.

That unsettling development underscores one of the hazards ofalternative currencies: their legal standing can be challenged. Andeven if it isn't, privately-issued money may be refused by merchantsor by banks. In an effort to remedy the legal problem, in December2007 Ron Paul introduced "The Free Competition in Currency Act,"a bill seeking to legalize the use of currencies that compete with theFederal Reserve's United States Dollar. Paul said:

One particular egregious recent example is that of the LibertyDollar, in which federal agents seized millions of dollars worthof private currency held by a private mint on behalf of thousandsof people across the country. . . . We stand on the precipice of an

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unprecedented monetary collapse, and as a result many peoplehave begun to look for alternatives to the dollar. ... I believethat the American people should be free to choose the type ofcurrency they prefer to use. The ability of consumers to adoptalternative currencies can help to keep the government and theFederal Reserve honest, as the threat that further inflation willcause more and more people to opt out of using the dollar mayrestrain the government from debasing the currency.8

There are other limitations to using precious metal coins as acurrency, however, and one of them is that a substantial markup isnecessarily involved. The value stamped on the coins must besignificantly higher than the metal is worth, just to keep the coinsfrom being smelted for their metal content whenever the metal's marketvalue goes up. But diluting the value of the currency would seem todefeat the purpose of holding precious metals, which is to preservevalue. To remedy that problem, it has been proposed that the coinscould be stamped merely with their precious metal weight, allowingtheir value to fluctuate with the "spot" market for the metal. Thatsolution, however, poses another set of problems. Shopkeepersaccepting the coins would have to keep checking the Internet todetermine their value.

Another obvious downside of precious metal coins is that they arecumbersome to carry around and to trade, particularly for large trans-actions. "GoldMoney" and "E-gold" are online precious metal ex-changes that address this problem by providing a convenient way toown and transfer gold without actually dealing with the physical metal.According to the GoldMoney website, when you buy "goldgrams"you own pure gold in a secure vault in London. GoldMoney can beused as currency by "clicking" goldgrams online from one account toanother.9 Online gold is a hassle-free way to buy gold, making it agood investment alternative; but it too has drawbacks as a currency.Like gold coins, it involves a certain markup, and its value fluctuateswith the volatile gold market. (See Chart, page 346.) People on fixedincomes with fixed rents generally prefer not to gamble. They like toknow exactly what they have in the bank.

Gold and silver are excellent ways to store value, but you don'tneed to use them as a medium of exchange. You can just buy bullionor coins and keep them in a safe place. The gold versus fiat question isexplored further in Chapter 36.

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Chapter 35 - Stepping from Scarcity into Abundance

www.kitco.com

Gold Price 1975-2006

Community Banking: The Grameen Bank of Bangladesh

Another creative innovation in local financing is the community-owned bank. Desperately poor people may be kept that way becausethey lack the collateral to qualify for loans from private corporate banks.Nobel Laureate Muhammad Yunus designed the Grameen (or "Vil-lage") Bank of Bangladesh so that ownership and control would re-main in the hands of the borrowers. As soon as a borrower accumu-lates sufficient savings, she buys one (and only one) share in the bank,for the very modest sum of three U.S. dollars. The bank's websitestates that it is 92 percent owned by its borrowers, with the Bangladeshgovernment owning the remaining 8 percent. The interest rate forloans is set so that after paying all expenses, the bank makes a modestprofit, which is returned to the shareholder-borrowers in the form ofdividends. The bank's website reports that 54 percent of its borrowershave crossed the poverty line and another 27 percent are very close toit, beginning with loans of as little as $50.10 By August 2006, the bankhad served 5 million borrowers over a period of 25 years.11

The Grameen Bank has asserted its independence from the privatecorporate banking system by providing loans to people who wouldotherwise be considered bad credit risks, but the currency it lends isstill the national currency, issued by the government and controlledby big corporate banks. Other community models operate indepen-dently of big banks, precious metals, and the government ....

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Chapter 36THE COMMUNITYCURRENCY MOVEMENT:SIDESTEPPING THE DEBT WEBWITH "PARALLEL" CURRENCIES

It is as ridiculous for a nation to say to its citizens, "You mustconsume less because we are short of money," as it would be for anairline to say, "Our planes are flying, but we cannot take you becausewe are short of tickets."

— Sheldon Entry, Billions for the Bankers, Debts for the People

Money" is a token representing value. A monetary system isa contractual agreement among a group of people to acceptthose tokens at an agreed-upon value in trade. The ideal group forthis contractual agreement is the larger community called a nation,but if that larger group can't be brought to the task, any smaller groupcan enter into an agreement, get together and trade. Historically,community currencies have arisen spontaneously when nationalcurrencies were scarce or unobtainable. When the German markbecame worthless during the Weimar hyperinflation of the 1920s, manyGerman cities began issuing their own currencies. Hundreds ofcommunities in the United States, Canada and Europe did the samething during the Great Depression, when unemployment was so highthat people had trouble acquiring dollars. People lacked money buthad skills, and there was plenty of work to be done. Complementarylocal currencies quietly co-existed along with official governmentmoney, increasing liquidity and facilitating trade. Like the medievaltally, these currencies were simply credits attesting that goods or serviceshad been received, entitling the bearer to trade the credit for anequivalent value in goods or services in the local market.

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Community currencies now operate legally in more than 35countries, and there are over 4,000 local exchange programsworldwide. Local or private exchange systems come in a variety offorms. Besides private gold and silver exchanges, they include localpaper money, computerized systems of credits and debits, systems forbartering labor, and systems for trading local agricultural products.What distinguishes them from most national currencies is that they arenot created as a debt to private banks, and they don't get siphoned offfrom the community to distant banks in the form of interest. They stayin town, stimulating local productivity. Local currencies can "primethe pump" with new money, funding local projects without adding tothe community debt. Many governments actively support them, andothers give unofficial support. Experience shows that these additionsto the money supply strengthen rather than threaten national financialstability. Besides their monetary functions, local exchange systemshave served to bring communities together, funding cooperativebusinesses where members can sell goods, new skills can be learned,and public markets can be held.

Creative Responses to Disaster:The Example of Argentina

In 1995, Argentina went bankrupt. The government had adoptedall the policies mandated by the International Monetary Fund, includ-ing "privatization" (the sale of public assets to private corporations)and pegging the Argentine peso to the U.S. dollar. The result was anovervalued peso, massive economic contraction, and collapse of thefinancial system. People rushed to their banks to withdraw their lifesavings, only to be told that their banks had permanently closed. Lawnssoon turned into vegetable gardens, and local systems sprang up forbartering goods. One environmental group held a massive yard sale,where people brought what they had to sell and received tickets rep-resenting money in exchange. The tickets were then used to barterthe purchase of other goods. This system of paper receipts for goodsand services developed into the Global Exchange Network (Red Globalde Trueque or RGT), which went on to become the largest nationalcommunity currency network in the world. The model spread through-out Central and South America, growing to 7 million members and acirculation valued at millions of U.S. dollars per year.

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Other financial innovations were devised in Argentina at the localprovincial government level. Provinces short of the national currencyresorted to issuing their own. They paid their employees with paperreceipts called "Debt-Cancelling Bonds" that were in currency unitsequivalent to the Argentine Peso. These could be called "negotiablebonds" (bonds that are legally transferable and negotiable as currency),except that they did not pay interest. They were closer to the "non-interest-bearing bonds" proposed by Jacob Coxey in the 1890s for fund-ing state and local projects. The bonds canceled the provinces' debtsto their employees and could be spent in the community. The Argen-tine provinces had actually "monetized" their debts, turning theirbonds or I.O.U.s into legal tender.1

Studies showed that in provinces in which the national moneysupply was supplemented with local currencies, prices not only didnot rise but actually declined compared to other Argentine provinces.Local exchange systems allowed goods and services to be traded thatwould not otherwise have been on the market, causing supply anddemand to increase together. The system had some flaws, includingthe lack of adequate controls against counterfeiting, which allowedlarge amounts of inventory to be stolen with counterfeit scrip. By thesummer of 2002, the RGT had shrunk to 70,000 members; but it stillremains a remarkable testament to what can be done at a grassrootslevel, when neighbors get together to trade with their own locally-grown currency.

Alternative Paper Currencies in the United States

More than 30 local paper currencies are now available in NorthAmerica. One that has been particularly successful is the Ithaca HOUR,originated by Paul Glover in Ithaca, New York. The HOUR is paperscrip that reads on the back:

This is money. This note entitles the bearer to receive one hourof labor or its negotiated value in goods and services. Pleaseaccept it, then spend it. Ithaca HOURS stimulate local businessby recycling our wealth locally, and they help fund new jobcreation. Ithaca HOURS are backed by real capital: our skills,our muscles, our tools, forests, fields and rivers.

One Ithaca HOUR is considered to be the equivalent of ten dollars,the average hourly wage in the area. More highly skilled services are

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negotiated in multiples of HOURS. A directory is published everycouple of months that lists the goods and services people in the com-munity are willing to trade for HOURS, and there is an HOUR bank.People can use HOURS to pay rent, shop at the farmers' market, orbuy furniture. The local hospital accepts them for medical care. Sev-eral million Ithaca HOURS' worth of transactions have occurred since1991. A Home Town Money Starter Kit is available for $25 or 2-1/2HOURS from Ithaca MONEY, Box 6578, Ithaca, New York 14851.

Another successful credit program was originated by Edgar Cahn,a professor of law at the University of the District of Columbia, to helpdeal with inadequate government social programs. Like Glover, Cahnset out to create a new kind of money that was independent of bothgovernment and banks, one that could be created by people them-selves. The unit of exchange in his system, called a "Time Dollar,"parallels the Ithaca HOUR in being valued in man/hours. In a land-mark ruling, the Internal Revenue Service held that Cahn's serviceplan was not "barter" in the commercial sense and was therefore tax-exempt. The ruling helped the program to spread quickly around thecountry. Cahn notes that social as well as economic benefits haveresulted from this sort of program:

[T]he very process of earning credits knits groups together ....They begin having pot-luck lunches; and they begin formingneighborhood crime watch things, and they begin looking aftereach other and checking in; and they begin to set up food bankcoops. [The process] seems to act as a catalyst for the creation ofgroup cohesion in a society where that kind of catalyst is difficultto find.2

Local scrip has also been used to tide farmers over until harvest."Berkshire Farm Preserve Notes" were printed by a farmer when abank in rural Massachusetts refused to lend him the money he neededto make it through the winter. Customers would buy the Notes for $9in the winter and could redeem them for $10 worth of vegetables inthe summer. With small family farms rapidly disappearing, local cur-rencies of this type are a way for the community to help farm familiesthat have been abandoned by the centralized monetary system. Pri-vate currencies provide the tools to bind communities together, sup-port local food growers and maintain food supplies.3

Bernard Lietaer, author of The Future of Money, describes otherprivate currency innovations, including a system devised in Japan forproviding for elderly care that isn't covered by national health

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insurance. People help out the elderly in return for "caring relationshiptickets" that are put into a savings account. They can then be usedwhen the account holder becomes disabled, or can be sent electronicallyto elderly relatives living far away, where someone else will administercare in return for credits. Another interesting model is found in Bali,where communities have a dual money system. Besides the nationalcurrency, the Balinese use a local currency in which the unit of accountis a block of time of about three hours. The local currency is usedwhen the community launches a local project, such as putting on afestival or building a school. The villagers don't have to compete withthe outside world to generate this currency, which can be used toaccomplish things for which they would not otherwise have had thefunds.4

The Frequent Flyer Model:Supplemental Credit Systems

Another innovation that has served to expand the medium ofexchange is the development of corporate credits such as airlinefrequent flyer miles, which can now be "earned" and "spent" in avariety of ways besides simply flying on the issuing airline. In someplaces, frequent flyer miles can be spent for groceries, telephone calls,taxis, restaurants and hotels. Lietaer proposes extending this modelto local governments, to achieve community ends without the need totax or vote special appropriations. For example, a system of "carboncredits" could reward consumers for taking measures that reducecarbon emissions. The credits would be accepted as partial paymentfor other purchases that serve to reduce carbon emissions, producinga snowball effect; and businesses accepting the credits could use themto pay local taxes.5

Parallel Electronic Currencies:The LETS System

Alternative currency systems got a major boost with the advent ofcomputers. No longer must private coins be minted or private bills beprinted. Trades can now be done electronically. The first electroniccurrency system was devised after IBM released its XT computer tothe public in 1981. Canadian computer expert Michael Linton builtan accounting database, and in 1982 he introduced the Local Exchange

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Trading System (LETS), a computerized system for recordingtransactions and keeping accounts.

Like Cotton Mather more than two centuries earlier, Linton hadredefined money. In his scheme, it was merely "an information systemfor recording human effort." A LETS credit comes into existence whena member borrows the community's credit to purchase goods orservices. The credit is extinguished when the member gives goods orservices back to the community in satisfaction of his obligation to repaythe credits. The exchange operates without any form of "backing" or"reserves." Like the tally system of medieval England, it is just anaccounting scheme tallying credits in and debits out. LETS creditscannot become scarce any more than inches can become scarce. Theyare tax-free and interest-free. They can be stored on a computerwithout even printing a paper copy. They are simply information.There are now at least 800 Local Exchange Trading Systems (LETS) inEurope, New Zealand, and Australia. They are less popular in theUnited States, but community currency advocate Tom Greco feels theywill become more popular as conventional economies continue todecline and more people become "marginalized."

In a website called "Travelling the World Without Money," Aus-tralian enthusiast James Taris tells of his personal experiences withthe LETS system. At a time when he had quit his job and was watch-ing his money carefully, he attended a LETS group meeting in hislocal community, where he learned that he could obtain a variety ofservices just for contributing an equivalent amount of his time. Theresult was the first and best professional massage he had ever had, aluxury for which he could not justify paying $60 cash when he wasgainfully employed. He "paid" for this and other services by learningvarious Internet and desktop publishing skills and contributing thoseskills to the group, something he quite enjoyed. He has been demon-strating the potential of the system by traveling around the world withvery little conventional money.6

"Friendly Favors" is a LETS-type computerized exchange systemthat has grown beyond the local community into a worldwide databaseof over 12,000 members. The system tracks the exchange of"Thankyou's," a unit of measure considered to be the equivalent ofone dollar saved due to a friendly discount or favor received. Thedatabase also stores the photos, resumes, talents, interests andcommunity-building skills of participants. Developed by Sergio Luband Victor Grey of Walnut Creek, California, www.favors.org is a non-commercial service "to interconnect those envisioning a world that

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works for all." Unlike most LETS systems, which have evolved amongpeople short of money looking for alternative ways to trade, the FriendlyFavors membership includes people who are financially well off andhighly credentialed, who are particularly interested in the humanresources potential of the system. As of May 2004, the Friendly Favorsmembership was spread over more than 100 countries and its databasewas shared by over 200 groups with a collective membership of over42,000, making it potentially the largest source of human resourcesavailable on the Internet.

A number of good Internet sites are devoted to the communitycurrency concept, including ithacahours.com; madisonhours.org; CarolBrouillet's site at communitycurrency.org; and The International Tournalof Community Currency Research at geog.le.ac.uk/ijccr. For a goodgeneral discussion of alternative money proposals, see Tom Greco'sMonetary Education Project at reinventingmoney.com. The definitivesource for LETS information is Landsman Community Services, Ltd.,1600 Embleton Crescent, Courtenay, British Columbia V9n 6N8,Canada; telephone (604) 338-0213.

Limitations of Local Currency Systems

Local exchange systems demonstrate that "money" need not besomething that is scarce, or for which people have to compete. Moneyis simply credit. As Benjamin Franklin observed, credit turns prosperitytomorrow into ready money today. Credit can be had without gold,banks, governments or even printing presses. It can all be done on acomputer.

The concept is good, but there are some practical limitations tothe LETS model and other community currency systems as currentlypracticed. One is that the usual incentives for repayment are lacking.Interest is not charged, and there may be no time limit for repayment.If you have ever lent money to a relative, you know the problem. Debtscan go unpaid indefinitely. You can lean on your relatives becauseyou know where to find them; but in the anonymity of a city or anation, borrowers on the honor system can just disappear into thenight. Some alternatives for keeping community members honest havebeen suggested by Tom Greco, who writes:

[T]here is always the possibility that a participant may chooseto not honor his/her commitment, opting out of the system andrefusing to deliver value equivalent to that received. There are

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three possible ways, which occur to me, of handling that risk.The first possibility is to use a "funded" exchange in which eachparticipant surrenders or pledges particular assets as securityagainst his/her commitment. ... A second possibility, is tomaintain an "insurance" pool, funded by fees levied on alltransactions, to cover any possible losses. A third possibility . . .is reliance upon group co-responsibility, i.e. having eachparticipant within an affinity group bear responsibility for thedebits of the others.7

Those are possibilities, but they are not so practical or efficient asthe contractual agreements used today, with interest charges and latepenalties enforceable in court. Contracts to repay can be legallyenforced by foreclosing on collateral, garnishing wages, and otherremedies for breach of contract, with or without interest provisions.But interest penalties make borrowers more inclined to be prudent intheir borrowing and to pay their debts promptly. Eliminating interestfrom the money system would eliminate the incentive for privatelenders to lend and would encourage speculation. If credit were madeavailable without time limits or interest charges, people might simplyborrow all the free money they could get, then compete to purchasebonds, stocks, and other income-producing assets with it, generatingspeculative asset bubbles. Imposing a significant cost on borrowingdeters this sort of rampant speculation.

In Moslem communities, interest is avoided because usury isforbidden in the Koran. To avoid infringing religious law, Islamiclawyers have gone to great lengths to design contracts that avoidinterest charges. The most common alternative is a contract in whichthe banker buys the property and sells it to the client at a higher price,to be paid in installments over time. The effect, however, is the sameas charging interest: more money is owed back if the sum is paid overtime than if it had been paid immediately.

In large Western metropolises, where mobility is high and religionis not a pervasive factor, interest is considered a reasonable chargeacknowledging the time value of money. The objection of Greco andothers to charging interest turns on the "impossible contract" problem— the problem of finding principal and interest to pay back loans in amonetary scheme in which only the principal is put into the moneysupply — but that problem can be resolved in other ways. A proposalfor retaining the benefits of the interest system while avoiding the"impossible contract" problem is explored in Chapter 42. A proposal

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for interest-free lending that might work is also described in thatchapter.

A more serious limitation of private "supplemental" currencies isthat they fail to deal with the mammoth debt spider that is suckingthe lifeblood from the national economy. "Supplemental" currenciesall assume a national currency that is being supplemented. Taxesmust still be paid in the national currency, and so must bills for tele-phone service, energy, gasoline, and anything else that isn't made bysomeone in the local currency group. That means community mem-bers must still belong to the national money system. As StephenZarlenga observes in The Lost Science of Money:

[S]uch local currencies do not stop the continued mismanagementof the money system at the national level - they can't stop thecontinued dispensation of monetary injustice from above throughthe privately owned and controlled Federal Reserve moneysystem. Ending that injustice should be our monetary priority?

The national money problem can be solved only by reforming thenational currency. And that brings us back to the "money question" ofthe 1890s - Greenbacks or gold?

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Chapter 37THE MONEY QUESTION:GOLDBUGS AND GREENBACKERS

DEBATE

You shall not crucify mankind upon a cross of gold.

— William Jennings Bryan, 1896 Democratic Convention

t opposite ends of the debate over the money question in the

1890s were the "Goldbugs," led by the bankers, and the"Greenbackers," who were chiefly farmers and laborers.1 The use ofthe term "Goldbug" has been traced to the 1896 Presidential election,when supporters of gold money took to wearing lapel pins of smallinsects to show their position. The Greenbackers at the other extremewere suspicious of a money system dependent on the bankers' gold,having felt its crushing effects in their own lives. As Vernon Parringtonsummarized their position in the 1920s:

To allow the bankers to erect a monetary system on gold is tosubject the producer to the money-broker and measure deferredpayments by a yardstick that lengthens or shortens from year toyear. The only safe and rational currency is a national currencybased on the national credit, sponsored by the state, flexible,and controlled in the interests of the people as a whole.2

The Goldbugs countered that currency backed only by the nationalcredit was too easily inflated by unscrupulous politicians. Gold, theyinsisted, was the only stable medium of exchange. They called it"sound money" or "honest money." Gold had the weight of historyto recommend it, having been used as money for 5,000 years. It hadto be extracted from the earth under difficult and often dangerouscircumstances, and the earth had only so much of it to relinquish. Thesupply of it was therefore relatively fixed. The virtue of gold was that

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it was a rare commodity that could not be inflated by irresponsiblegovernments out of all proportion to the supply of goods and services.

The Greenbackers responded that gold's scarcity, far from being avirtue, was actually its major drawback as a medium of exchange.Gold coins might be "honest money," but their scarcity had led gov-ernments to condone dishonest money, the sleight of hand known as"fractional reserve" banking. Governments that were barred fromcreating their own paper money would just borrow it from banks thatcreated it and then demanded it back with interest. As StephenZarlenga noted in The Lost Science of Money:

[A] 11 of the plausible sounding gold standard theory could notchange or hide the fact that, in order to function, the systemhad to mix paper credits with gold in domestic economies. Evenafter this addition, the mixed gold and credit standard couldnot properly service the growing economies. They periodicallybroke down with dire domestic and international results. [In]the worst such breakdown, the Great Crash and Depression of1929-33, ... it was widely noted that those countries did bestthat left the gold standard soonest.3

The reason gold has to be mixed with paper credits is evident fromthe math. As noted earlier, a dollar lent at 6 percent interest, com-pounded annually, becomes 10 dollars in 40 years.4 That means thatif the money supply were 100 percent gold, and if bankers lent out 10percent of it at 6 percent interest compounded annually (continuallyrolling over principal and interest into new loans), in 40 years thebankers would own all the gold. To avoid that result, either the moneysupply needs to be able to expand, which means allowing fiat money,or interest needs to be banned as it was in the Middle Ages.

The debate between the Goldbugs and the Greenbackers still rages,but today the Goldbugs are not the bankers. Rather, they are in themoney reform camp along with the Greenbackers. Both factions areopposed to the current banking system, but they disagree on how tofix it. That is one reason the modern money reform movement hasn'tmade much headway politically. As Machiavelli said in the sixteenthcentury, "He who introduces a new order of things has all those whoprofit from the old order as his enemies, and he has only lukewarmallies in all those who might profit from the new." Maverick reformerscontinue to argue among themselves while the bankers and their hiredeconomists march in lockstep, fortified by media they have purchasedand laws they have gotten passed with the powerful leverage of theirbank-created money.

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Is Gold a Stable Measure of Value?

There is little debate that gold is an excellent investment,particularly in times of economic turmoil. When the Argentine pesocollapsed, families with a stash of gold coins reported that one coinwas sufficient to make it through a month on the barter system. Goldis a good thing to own, but the issue debated by money reformers issomething else: should it be the basis of the national currency, eitheralone or as "backing" for paper and electronic money?

Goldbugs maintain that a gold currency is necessary to keep thevalue of money stable. Greenbackers agree on the need for stabilitybut question whether the price of gold is stable enough to act as sucha peg. In the nineteenth century, farmers knew the problem first-hand, having seen their profits shrink as the gold price went up. Areal-world model is hard to come by today, but one is furnished by thereal estate market in Vietnam, where sales have recently been under-taken in gold. In the fall of 2005, the price of gold soared to over $500an ounce. When buyers suddenly had to pay tens of millions moreVietnamese dotig for a house valued at 1,000 taels of gold, the realestate market ground to a halt.5

The purpose of "money" is to tally the value of goods and servicestraded, facilitating commerce between buyers and sellers. If the yard-stick by which value is tallied keeps stretching and shrinking itself,commerce is impaired. When gold was the medium of exchange his-torically, prices inflated along with the supply of gold. When goldfrom the New World flooded Spain in the sixteenth century, the coun-try suffered massive inflation. During the California Gold Rush of the1850s, consumer prices also shot up with the rising supply of gold.From 1917 to 1920, the U.S. gold supply surged again, as gold camepouring into the country in exchange for war materials. The moneysupply became seriously inflated and consumer prices doubled, al-though the money supply was supposedly being strictly regulated bythe Federal Reserve.6 During the 1970s, the value of gold soared from$40 an ounce to $800 an ounce, dropping back to a low of $255 inFebruary 2001. (See Chart, page 346.) If rents had been paid in goldcoins, they would have swung wildly as well. Again, people on fixedincomes generally prefer a currency that has a fixed and predictablevalue, even if it exists only as numbers in their checkbooks.

The tether of gold can serve to curb inflation, but an expandablecurrency is necessary to avert the depressions that pose even graver

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dangers to the economy. When the money supply contracts, so doproductivity and employment. When gold flooded the market after amajor gold discovery in the nineteenth century, there was plenty ofmoney to hire workers, so production and employment went up.When gold became scarce, as when the bankers raised interest ratesand called in loans, there was insufficient money to hire workers, soproduction and employment went down. But what did the availabilityof gold have to do with the ability of farmers to farm, of miners tomine, of builders to build? Not much. The Greenbackers argued thatthe work should come first. Like in the medieval tally system, the"money" would follow, as a receipt acknowledging payment.

Goldbugs argue that there will always be enough gold in a gold-based money system to go around, because prices will naturally adjustdownward so that supply matches demand.7 But this fundamentalprinciple of the quantity theory of money has not worked well inpractice. The drawbacks of limiting the medium of exchange toprecious metals were obvious as soon as the Founding Fathers decidedon a precious metal standard at the Constitutional Convention, whenthe money supply contracted so sharply that farmers rioted in thestreets in Shay's Rebellion. When the money supply contracted duringthe Great Depression, a vicious deflationary spiral was initiated.Insufficient money to pay workers led to demand falling off, whichled to more goods remaining unsold, which caused even more workersto get laid off. Fruit was left to rot in the fields, because it wasn'teconomical to pick it and sell it.

To further clarify these points, here is a hypothetical. You areshipwrecked on a desert island ....

Shipwrecked with a Chest of Gold Coins

You and nine of your mates wash ashore with a treasure chestcontaining 100 gold coins. You decide to divide the coins and theessential tasks equally among you. Your task is making the basketsused for collecting fruit. You are new to the task and manage to turnout only ten baskets the first month. You keep one and sell the othersto your friends for one coin each, using your own coins to purchasethe wares of the others.

So far so good. By the second month, your baskets have worn outbut you have gotten much more proficient at making them. Youmanage to make twenty. Your mates admire your baskets and say

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they would like to have two each; but alas, they have only one coin toallot to basket purchase. You must either cut your sales price in halfor cut back on production. The other islanders face the same problemwith their production potential. The net result is price deflation anddepression. You have no incentive to increase your production, andyou have no way to earn extra coins so that you can better your standardof living.

The situation gets worse over the years, as the islanders multiplybut the gold coins don't. You can't afford to feed your young childrenon the meager income you get from your baskets. If you make morebaskets, their price just gets depressed and you are left with the num-ber of coins you had to start with. You try borrowing from a friend,but he too needs his coins and will agree only if you will agree to payhim interest. Where is this interest to come from? There are not enoughcoins in the community to cover this new cost.

Then, miraculously, another ship washes ashore, containing a chestwith 50 more gold coins. The lone survivor from this ship agrees tolend 40 of his coins at 20 percent interest. The islanders consider thisa great blessing, until the time comes to pay the debt back, when theyrealize there are no extra coins on the island to cover the interest. Thecreditor demands lifetime servitude instead. The system degeneratesinto debt and bankruptcy, just as the gold-based system did historicallyin the outside world.

Now consider another scenario ....

Shipwrecked with an Accountant

You and nine companions are shipwrecked on a desert island, butyour ship is not blessed (or cursed) with a chest of gold coins. "Noproblem," says one of your mates, who happens to be an accountant.He will keep "count" of your productivity with notched wooden tal-lies. He assumes the general function of tally-maker and collector anddistributor of wares. For this service he pays himself a fair startingwage of ten tallies a month.

Your task is again basket-weaving. The first month, you make tenbaskets, keep one, and trade the rest with the accountant for ninetallies, which you use to purchase the work/product of your mates.The second month, you make twenty baskets, keep two, and requesteighteen tallies from the accountant for the other baskets. This timeyou get your price, since the accountant has an unlimited supply oftrees and can make as many tallies as needed. They have no real

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value in themselves and cannot become "scarce." They are just re-ceipts, a measure of the goods and services on the market. By collect-ing eighteen tallies for eighteen baskets, you have kept your basket'sprice stable, and you now have some extra money to tuck under yourstraw mattress for a rainy day. You take a month off to explore theisland, funding the vacation with your savings.

When you need extra tallies to build a larger house, you borrowthem from the accountant, who tallies the debt with an accountingentry. You pay principal and interest on this loan by increasing yourbasket production and trading the additional baskets for additionaltallies. Who pockets the interest? The community decides that it isnot something the tally-maker is rightfully entitled to, since the credithe extended was not his own but was an asset of the community, andhe is already getting paid for his labor. The interest, you decide as agroup, will be used to pay for services needed by the community —clearing roads, standing guard against wild animals, caring for thosewho can't work, and so forth. Rather than being siphoned off by aprivate lender, the interest goes back into the community, where itcan be used to pay the interest on other loans.

When you and your chosen mate are fruitful and multiply, yourchildren make additional baskets, and your family's wealth alsomultiplies. There is no shortage of tallies, since they are pegged to theavailable goods and services. They multiply along with this "real"wealth; but they don't inflate beyond real wealth, because tallies and"wealth" (goods and services) always come into existence at the sametime. When you are comfortable with your level of production —say, twenty baskets a month — no new tallies are necessary to fundyour business. The system already contains the twenty tallies neededto cover basket output. You receive them in payment for your basketsand spend them on the wares of the other islanders, keeping the talliesin circulation. The money supply is permanent but expandable,growing as needed to cover real growth in productivity and the interestdue on loans. Excess growth is avoided by returning money to thecommunity, either as interest due on loans or as a fee or tax for otherservices furnished to the community.

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Where Would the Government Get the Gold?

Other challenges would face a government that tried to switch toan all-gold currency, and one challenge would appear to beinsurmountable: where would the government get the gold? Themetal would have to be purchased, and what would the governmentuse to purchase it with if Federal Reserve Notes were no longer legaltender? In the worst-case scenario, the government might simplyconfiscate the gold of its citizens, as Roosevelt did in 1933; but whenRoosevelt did it, he at least had some money to pay for it with. If goldwere the only legal tender, Federal Reserve Notes would be worthless.

Assume for purposes of argument, however, that the Treasurydid manage to acquire a suitable stash of gold. All of the above-groundgold in the world is estimated at less than 6 billion ounces (or about160,000 UK tonnes), and much of it is worn around the necks ofwomen in Asia, so acquiring all 6 billion ounces would obviously beimpossible; but let's assume that the U.S. government succeeded inacquiring half of it. At $800 per ounce (the December 2007 price),that would be around $2.4 trillion worth of gold. If all 12 trilliondollars in the money supply (M3) were replaced with gold, one troyounce would have a value of about $4,000, or 5 times its actual marketvalue in 2007. That means the value of a gold coin would no longerbear any real relationship to "market" conditions, so how would thislaborious exercise contribute to price stability? If the goal is to maintaina fixed money supply, why not just order the Treasury to issue a fixednumber of tokens, declare them to be the sole official national legaltender, and refuse to issue any more? The government could do that;but again, do we want a fixed, non-inflatable money supply? As longas money is lent at compound interest, keeping the money supply"fixed and stable" means the lenders will eventually wind up with allthe gold.

Some gold proponents have proposed a dual-currency system. (SeeChapter 35.) The fiat system would continue, but prudent peoplecould convert their funds to gold coins or E-gold for private trade.The idea would be to preserve the value of their money as the value ofthe fiat dollar plunged, but what would be the advantage of tradingin a gold currency if the fiat system were still in place? Why not justbuy gold as an investment and watch its value go up as the dollar'svalue shrinks? The gold could be sold in the market for fiat dollars asneeded. Again, you can capitalize on gold's investment value withouthaving to use it as a currency.

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The "Real Bills" Doctrine

If using gold as a currency is plagued with so many problems,why did it work reasonably well up until World War I? NelsonHultberg and Antal Fekete argue that gold was able to function as acurrency because it was supplemented with a private money systemcalled "real bills" - short-term bills of exchange that traded amongmerchants as if they were money. Real bills were invoices for goodsand services that were passed from hand to hand until they camedue, serving as a secondary form of money that was independent ofthe banks and allowed the money supply to expand without losing itsvalue.8

The "real bills" doctrine was postulated by Adam Smith in TheWealth of Nations in 1776. It held that so long as money is issuedonly for assets of equal value, the money will maintain its value nomatter how much money is issued. If the issuer takes in $100 worthof silver and issues $100 worth of paper money in exchange, the moneywill obviously hold its value, since it can be cashed in for the silver.Likewise, if the issuer takes I.O.U.s for $100 worth of corn in the futureand issues $100 worth of paper money in exchange, the money willhold its value, since the issuer can sell the corn in the market and getthe money back. Similarly, if the issuer takes a mortgage on a gambler'shouse in exchange for issuing $100 and lending it to the gambler, themoney will hold its value even if the gambler loses the money in themarket, since the issuer can sell the house and get the money back.The real bills doctrine was rejected by twentieth century economistsin favor of the quantity theory of money; but Wikipedia notes that it isactually the basis on which the Federal Reserve advances credit today,when it takes mortgage-backed loans as collateral and then"monetizes" them by advancing an equivalent sum in accounting-entry dollars to the borrowing bank.9

Professor Fekete states that the real bills system works to preservemonetary value only when there is gold to be collected at the end ofthe exchange, but other commodities would obviously work as well.One alternative that has been proposed is the "Kilowatt Card," aprivately-issued paper currency that can be traded as money or cashedin for units of electricity.10 The nineteenth century Greenbackers reliedon the real bills doctrine when they contended that the money supplywould retain its value if the government issued paper dollars in

exchange for labor that produced an equivalent value in goods and

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services. The Greenback was a receipt for a quantity of goods or servicesdelivered to the government, which the bearer could then trade in thecommunity for other goods or services of equivalent value. The receiptwas simply a tally, an accounting tool for measuring value. The goldcertificate itself could be considered just one of many forms of "realbills." It has value because it has been issued or traded for real goods,in this case gold. Some alternatives for pegging currencies to astandard of value that includes many goods and services rather thana single volatile precious metal are discussed in Chapter 46.

The NESARA Bill: Restoring Constitutional Money

One other proposal should be explored before leaving this chapter.Harvey Barnard of the NESARA Institute in Louisiana has suggesteda way to retain the silver and gold coinage prescribed in the Constitutionwhile providing the flexibility needed for national growth andproductivity. The Constitution gives Congress the exclusive power"to coin Money, regulate the Value thereof, and of foreign Coin, andfix the Standard of Weights and Measures." Under Barnard's bill,called the National Economic Stabilization and Recovery Act(NESARA'), the national currency would be issued exclusively by thegovernment and would be of three types: standard silver coins,standard gold coins, and Treasury credit-notes (Greenbacks). TheTreasury notes would replace all debt-money (Federal Reserve Notes).The precious metal content of coins would be standardized as providedin the Constitution and in the Coinage Act of 1792, which make thesilver dollar coin the standard unit of the domestic monetary system.To prevent coins from being smelted for their metal content, the coinswould not be stamped with a face value but would just be named"silver dollars," "gold eagles," or fractions of those coins. Their valueswould then be left to float in relation to the Treasury credit-note andto each other. Exchange rates would be published regularly and wouldfollow global market values. Congress would not only mint coins fromits own stores of gold and silver but would encourage people to bringtheir private stores to be minted and circulated. Other features of thebill include abolition of the Federal Reserve System, purchase by theU.S. Treasury of all outstanding capital stock of the Federal Reserve

i Not to be confused with the " National Economic Security and ReformationAct" (NESARA), a later, more controversial proposal said to have been channeled.

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Chapter 37 - The Money Question

Banks, return of the national currency to the public through a newly-created U.S. Treasury Reserve System, and replacement of the federalincome tax system with a 14 percent sales and use tax (exemptingspecified items including groceries and rents).11

The NESARA proposal might work, but if the government canissue both paper money and precious metal coins, the coins won't serveas much of a brake on inflation. So why go to the trouble of mintingthem, or to the inconvenience of carrying them around? The problemwith the current financial scheme is not that the dollar is not redeemablein gold. It is that the whole monetary edifice is a pyramid schemebased on debt to a private banking cartel. Money created privately asmultiple "loans" against a single "reserve" is fraudulent on its face,whether the "reserve" is a government bond or gold bullion.

Precious metals are an excellent investment to preserve value inthe event of economic collapse, and community currencies are viablealternative money sources when other money is not to be had. But inthe happier ending to our economic fairytale, the national money supplywould be salvaged before it collapses; and what is threatening to collapsethe dollar today is not that it is not backed by gold. It is that 99 percentof the U.S. money supply is owed back to private lenders with interest,and the money to cover the interest does not exist until new loans aretaken out to cover it. Just to maintain our debt-based money supplyrequires increasing levels of debt and corresponding levels of inflation,creating a debt cyclone that is vacuuming up our national assets. Thefederal debt has grown so massive that the interest burden alone willsoon be more than the taxpayers can afford to pay. The debt isimpossible to repay in the pre-Copernican world in which money islent into existence by private banks, but the Wizard of Oz might havesaid we have just been looking at the matter wrong. We have allowedour money to rotate in the firmament around an elite class of financierswhen it should be rotating around the collective body of the people.When that Copernican shift is made, the water of a free-flowing moneysupply can transform the arid desert of debt into the green abundanceenvisioned by our forefathers. We can have all the abundance we needwithout taxes or debt. We can have it just by eliminating the financialparasite that is draining our abundance away.

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Chapter 38THE FEDERAL DEBT:A CASE OFDISORGANIZED THINKING

"As for you my fine friend, you're a victim of disorganizedthinking. You are under the unfortunate delusion that simplybecause you have run away from danger, you have no courage. Youare confusing courage with wisdom."

- The Wizard ofOz to the Lion

The Wizard of Oz solved impossible problems just by look-ing at them differently. The Wizard showed the CowardlyLion that he had courage all along, showed the Scarecrow that hehad a brain all along, showed the Tin Woodman that he had a heartall along. If the Kingdom of Oz had had a Congress, the Wizardmight have shown it that it had the means to pay off its national debtall along. It could pay off the debt by turning its bonds into what theyshould have been all along - legal tender.

Indeed, the day is fast approaching when the U.S. Congress mayhave no other alternative but to pay off its debt in this way. Thefederal debt has reached crisis proportions. U.S. Comptroller GeneralDavid M. Walker warned in September 2003:

We cannot simply grow our way out of [the national debt]. . . .The ultimate alternatives to definitive and timely action are notonly unattractive, they are arguably infeasible. Specifically,raising taxes to levels far in excess of what the American peoplehave ever supported before, cutting total spending byunthinkable amounts, or further mortgaging the future of ourchildren and grandchildren to an extent that our economy, ourcompetitive posture and the quality of life for Americans wouldbe seriously threatened.1

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U.S. Debt 1950-2004Excel Growth Trend Projection 2005-2015

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In the 1930s, economist Alvin Hansen told President Roosevelt thatplunging the country into debt did not matter, because the public debtwas owed to the people themselves and never had to be paid back.But even if that were true in the 1930s (which is highly debatable), it isclearly not true today. Nearly half the public portion of the federaldebt is now owed to foreign investors, who are not likely to be sosanguine about continually refinancing it, particularly when the dollaris rapidly shrinking in value. Al Martin cites a study authorized bythe U.S. Treasury in 2001, finding that for the government to keepservicing its debt as it has been doing, by 2013 it will have to haveraised the personal income tax rate to 65 percent. And that's just topay the interest on the national debt. When the government can't paythe interest, it will be forced to declare bankruptcy, and the economywill collapse. Martin writes:

The economy of the rest of the planet would collapse five dayslater. . . . The only way the government can maintain control ina post-economically collapsed environment is through currencyand through military might, or internal military power. . . . Andthat's what U.S. citizens are left with . . . super sized bubblesand really scary economic numbers.2

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Federal Government Debtper Person

(exclude state & local government debt)

Grandfather Economic Report:http /Anwhodges .home .att.netdata: Dept. of Debt, U.S. Treasury

Compounding the problem, Iran and other oil producers are nowmoving from dollars to other currencies for their oil trades. If oil nolonger has to be traded in dollars, a major incentive for foreign centralbanks to hold U.S. government bonds will disappear. British journalistJohn Pilger, writing in The New Statesman in February 2006, suggestedthat the real reason for the aggressive saber-rattling with Iran is notIran's nuclear ambitions but is the effect of the world's fourth-biggestoil producer and trader breaking the dollar monopoly. He noted thatIraqi President Saddam Hussein had done the same thing before hewas attacked.3 In an April 2005 article in Counter Punch, MikeWhitney warned of the dire consequences that are liable to followwhen the "petrodollar" standard is abandoned:

This is much more serious than a simple decline in the value ofthe dollar. If the major oil producers convert from the dollar tothe euro, the American economy will sink almost overnight. Ifoil is traded in euros then central banks around the world wouldbe compelled to follow and America will be required to pay off itsenormous $8 trillion debt. That, of course, would be doomsdayfor the American economy. ... If there's a quick fix, I have noidea what it might be.4

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The quick fix! It was the Wizard's stock in trade. He might havesuggested fixing the problem by changing the rules by which the gameis played. In 1933, Franklin Roosevelt pronounced the country officiallybankrupt, exercised his special emergency powers, waved the royalPresidential fiat, and ordered the promise to pay in gold removed fromthe dollar bill. The dollar was instantly transformed from a promiseto pay in legal tender into legal tender itself. Seventy years later,Congress could again acknowledge that the country is officiallybankrupt, propose a plan of reorganization, and turn its debts into"legal tender." Alexander Hamilton showed two centuries ago thatCongress could dispose of the federal debt by "monetizing" it, butCongress made the mistake of delegating that function to a privatebanking system. Congress just needs to rectify its error and monetizethe debt itself, by buying back its own bonds with newly-issued U.S.Notes.

If that sounds like a radical solution, consider that it is actuallywhat is being done right now — not by the government but by the privateFederal Reserve. The difference is that when the Fed buys back thegovernment's bonds with newly-issued Federal Reserve Notes, itdoesn't take the bonds out of circulation. Two sets of securities (thebonds and the cash) are produced where before there was only one.This highly inflationary result could be avoided by allowing thegovernment to buy back its own bonds and simply voiding them out.(More on this in Chapter 39.)

The Mysterious Pirates of the Caribbean

"Monetizing" the government's debt by buying federal securitieswith newly-issued cash is nothing new. The practice has been quietlyengaged in by the Fed and its affiliated banks for the last century. In2005, however, this scheme evidently went into high gear, when Chinaand Japan, the two largest purchasers of U.S. federal debt, cut backon their purchases of U.S. securities. Market "bears" had long warnedthat when foreign creditors quit rolling over their U.S. bonds, the U.S.economy would collapse. They were therefore predicting the worst;but somehow, no disaster resulted. The bonds were still getting sold.The question was, to whom? The Fed identified the buyers as amysterious new U.S. creditor group called "Caribbean banks." The

1 An allusion to John Snow, then U.S. Treasury Secretary.370

financial press said they were offshore hedge funds. But Canadiananalyst Rob Kirby, writing in March 2005, said that if they were hedgefunds, they must have performed extremely poorly for their investors,raking in losses of 40 percent in January 2005 alone; and no such losseswere reported by the hedge fund community. He wrote:

The foregoing suggests that hedge funds categorically did not buythese securities. The explanations being offered up as plausibleby officialdom and fed to us by the main stream financial pressare not consistent with empirical facts or market observations.There are no wide spread or significant losses being reported bythe hedge fund community from ill gotten losses in the Treasurymarket. . . . [W]ho else in the world has pockets that deep, tobuy 23 billion bucks worth of securities in a single month? Onemight surmise that a printing press would be required to comeup with that kind of cash on such short notice .... [M]ysuggestion... is that history is indeed repeating itself and maybePirates still inhabit the Caribbean. Perhaps they are aided andabetted in their modern day financial piracy by Wizards andSnowmen1 with printing presses, who reside in Washington.5

In September 2005, this bit of wizardry happened again, afterVenezuela liquidated roughly $20 billion in U.S. Treasury securitiesfollowing U.S. threats to Venezuela. Again the anticipated responsewas a plunge in the dollar, and again no disaster ensued. Other buyershad stepped in to take up the slack, and chief among them were themysterious "Caribbean banking centers." Rob Kirby wrote:

I wonder who really bought Venezuela's 20 or so billion they"pitched." Whoever it was, perhaps their last name ends withSnow or Greenspan. . . . [T]here are more ways than one mightsuspect to create the myth (or reality) of a strong currency - atleast temporarily!6

Those incidents may just have been dress rehearsals for biggerthings to come. When the Fed announced that it would no longer bepublishing figures for M3 beginning in March 2006, analysts wonderedwhat it was we weren't supposed to know. March 2006 was themonth Iran announced that it would begin selling oil in Euros. Someobservers suspected that the Fed was gearing up to use newly-printeddollars to buy back a flood of U.S. securities dumped by foreign centralbanks. Another possibility was that the Fed had already been engagingin massive dollar printing to conceal a major derivatives default and

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was hiding the evidence.7

Whatever the answer, the question raised here is this: if the Fedcan buy back the government's bonds with a flood of newly-printeddollars, leaving the government in debt to the Fed and the banks, whycan't the government buy back the bonds with its own newly-printeddollars, debt-free? The inflation argument long used to block thatsolution simply won't hold up anymore. But before we get to thatissue, we'll look at just how easily this reverse sleight of hand might bepulled off, without burying the government in paperwork or violatingthe Constitution ....

Extinguishing the National Debtwith the Click of a Mouse

In the 1980s, a chairman of the Coinage Subcommittee of the U.S.House of Representatives pointed out that the national debt could bepaid with a single coin. The Constitution gives Congress the power tocoin money and regulate its value, and no limitation is put on thevalue of the coins it creates.8 The entire national debt could be extinguishedwith a single coin minted by the U.S. Mint, stamped with the appropriateface value. Today this official might have suggested nine coins, eachwith a face value of one trillion dollars.

One problem with that clever solution is, how do you make changefor a trillion dollar coin? The value of this mega-coin would obviouslyderive, not from its metal content, but simply from the numerical valuestamped on it. If the government can stamp a piece of metal and callit a trillion dollars, it should be able to create paper money or digitalmoney and call it the same thing. As Andrew Jackson observed, whenthe Founding Fathers gave Congress the power to "coin" money, theydid not mean to limit Congress to metal money and let the banks createthe rest. They meant to give the power to create the entire nationalmoney supply to Congress. Jefferson said that Constitutions neededto be amended to suit the times; and today the "coin" of the times ispaper money, checkbook money, and electronic money. TheConstitutional provision that gives Congress "the power to coin money"needs to be updated to read "the power to create the national moneysupply in all its forms."

If that modification were made, most of the government's debt couldbe paid online. The simplicity of the procedure was demonstrated bythe U.S. Treasury itself in January 2004, when it "called" (or redeemed)

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a 30-year bond issue before the bond was due. The Treasuryannounced on January 15, 2004:

TREASURY CALLS 9-1/8 PERCENT BONDS OF 2004-09

The Treasury today announced the call for redemption atpar on May 15, 2004, of the 9-1/8% Treasury Bonds of 2004-09,originally issued May 15, 1979, due May 15, 2009 (CUSIP No.9112810CG1). There are $4,606 million of these bondsoutstanding, of which $3,109 million are held by privateinvestors. Securities not redeemed on May 15, 2004 will stopearning interest.

These bonds are being called to reduce the cost of debtfinancing. The 9-1/8% interest rate is significantly above thecurrent cost of securing financing for the five years remaining totheir maturity. In current market conditions, Treasury estimatesthat interest savings from the call and refinancing will be about$544 million.

Payment will be made automatically by the Treasury for bonds inbook-entry form, whether held on the books of the Federal ReserveBanks or in TreasuryDirect accounts.9

The provision for payment "in book entry form" meant that nodollar bills, checks or other paper currencies would be exchanged.Numbers would just be entered into the Treasury's direct online moneymarket fund ("TreasuryDirect"). The securities would merely changecharacter - from interest-bearing to non-interest-bearing, from a debtowed to a debt paid. Bondholders failing to redeem their securities byMay 15, 2004 could still collect the face amount of the bonds in cash.They would just not receive interest on the bonds.

The Treasury's announcement generated some controversy, sincegovernment bonds are usually considered good until maturity; butearly redemption was actually allowed in the fine print on the bonds.10Provisions for early redemption are routinely written into corporateand municipal bonds, so that when interest rates drop, the issuer canrefinance the debt at a lower rate.

How did the Treasury plan to refinance this $4 billion bond issueat a lower rate? Any bonds not bought by the public would no doubtbe bought by the banks. Recall the testimony of Federal Reserve BoardChairman Marriner Eccles:

When the banks buy a billion dollars of Government bonds asthey are offered . . . they actually create, by a bookkeeping entry, abillion dollars.11

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Chapter 38 - The Federal Debt

If the Treasury can cancel its promise to pay interest on a bondissue simply by announcing its intention to do so, and if it can refinancethe principal with bookkeeping entries, it can pay off the entire federaldebt in that way. It just has to announce that it is calling its bonds andother securities, and that they will be paid "in book-entry form." Nocash needs to change hands. The funds can remain in the accountswhere the bonds were held, to be reinvested somewhere else.

Indeed, at this point the only way to fend off national bankruptcymay be for the government to simply issue fiat money, buy back itsown bonds, and void them out. That is the conclusion of Goldbugleader Ed Griffin in The Creature from Tekyll Island, as well as ofGreenbacker leader Stephen Zarlenga in model legislation called theAmerican Monetary Act.12 Zarlenga notes that the federal debt needn'tbe paid off all at once. The government's debts extend several decadesinto the future and could be paid gradually as the securities came due.Other provisions of the American Monetary Act are discussed inChapter 41.

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Chapter 39LIQUIDATING THEFEDERAL DEBT WITHOUTCAUSING INFLATION

The national debt . . . answers most of the purposes of money.

— Alexander HamUton, "Report on the Public Credit,"January 14,1790

The idea that the federal debt could be liquidated by simplyprinting up money and buying back the government's bondswith it is dismissed out of hand by economists and politicians, on theground that it would produce Weimar-style runaway inflation. Butwould it? Inflation results when the money supply increases fasterthan goods and services, and replacing government securities with cashwould not change the size of the money supply. Federal securities havebeen traded as part of the money supply ever since Alexander Hamiltonmade them the basis of the U.S. money supply in the late eighteenthcentury. Federal securities are treated by the Fed and by the marketitself just as if they were money. They are traded daily in enormousvolume among banks and other financial institutions around the worldjust as if they were money.1 If the government were to buy back itsown securities with cash, these instruments representing financial valuewould merely be converted from interest-bearing into non-interest-bearing financial assets. The funds would move from M2 and M3 intoMl (cash and checks), but the total money supply would remain thesame.

That would be true if the government were to buy back its securitieswith cash, but that is very different from what is happening today. Whenthe Federal Reserve uses newly-issued Federal Reserve Notes to buyback federal bonds, it does not void out the bonds. Rather, they become

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the "reserves" for issuing many times their value in new loans; andthe new cash created to buy these securities is added to the moneysupply as well. That highly inflationary result could be avoided if thegovernment were to buy back its own bonds and take them out ofcirculation.

In Today's Illusory Financial Scheme, Debt Is Money

"Money" has been variously defined as "a medium that can beexchanged for goods and services," and "assets and propertyconsidered in terms of monetary value; wealth." What falls underthose definitions, however, keeps changing. In a November 2005 articletitled "M3 Measure of Money Discontinued by the Fed," Bud Conradobserved:

Money used to mean the cash people carried in their pocketsand the checking and savings account balances they had in theirbanks, because that is what they would use to buy goods. Butnow they have money market funds, which function almost aschecking accounts. And behind many small-balance checkingaccounts are large lines of credit. . . . [C]redit is what we use tobuy things so credit is a form of money. The broadest definition ofcredit is all debt.2

"All debt" includes the federal debt, which is composed of securities(bills, bonds and notes). If the government were to swap its securitiesfor cash and take them out of circulation, price inflation would notresult, because no one would have any more money to spend than before.The government's bond money would already have been spent — itwouldn't get any more money out of the deal — and the cashed-outbondholders would not be any richer either. Consider this hypothetical:

You have $20,000 that you want to save for a rainy day. Youdeposit the money in an account with your broker, who recommendsputting $10,000 into the stock market and $10,000 into corporatebonds, and you agree. How much do you think you have saved in theaccount? $20,000. A short time later, your broker notifies you thatyour bonds have been unexpectedly called, or turned into cash. Youcheck your account on the Internet and see that where before itcontained $10,000 in corporate bonds, it now contains $10,000 in cash.How much do you now think you have saved in the account? $20,000(plus or minus some growth in interest and fluctuations in stock values).

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Paying off the bonds did not give you an additional $10,000, makingyou feel richer than before, prompting you to rush out to buy shoes orreal estate you did not think you could afford before, increasing demandand driving up prices.

This result is particularly obvious when we look at the largest hold-ers of federal securities, including Social Security and other institu-tional investors ....

Solving the Social Security Crisis

In March 2005, the federal debt clocked in at $7,713 trillion. Ofthat sum, $3,169 trillion, or 41 percent, was in "intragovernmentalholdings" - government trust funds, revolving funds, and special funds.Chief among them was the Social Security trust fund, which held$1,705 trillion of the government's debt. The 59 percent owned by thepublic was also held largely by institutional investors - U.S. and for-eign banks, investment funds, and so forth.3

Dire warnings ensued that Social Security was going bankrupt,since its holdings were invested in federal securities that the governmentcould not afford to redeem. Defenders of the system countered thatSocial Security could not actually go bankrupt, because it is a pay-as-you-go system. Today's retirees are paid with withdrawals from thepaychecks of today's working people. It is only the fund's excessholdings that are at risk; and it is the government, not Social Security,that is teetering on bankruptcy, because it is the government that lacksthe money to pay off its bonds.4

The issue here, however, is what would happen if the SocialSecurity crisis were resolved by simply cashing out its federal bondholdings with newly-issued U.S. Notes? Would dangerous inflationresult? The likely answer is that it would not, because the SocialSecurity fund would have no more money than it had before. Thegovernment would just be returning to the fund what the taxpayersthought was in it all along. The bonds would be turned into cash,which would stay in the fund where it belonged, to be used for futurebaby-boomer pay-outs as intended.

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Cashing Out the Federal Securities of the Federal Reserve

Another institution holding a major chunk of the federal debt isthe Federal Reserve itself. The Fed owns about ten percent of thegovernment's outstanding securities.5 If the government were to buyback these securities with cash, that money too would no doubt staywhere it is, where it would continue to serve as the reserves againstwhich loans were made. The cash would just replace the bonds, whichwould be liquidated and taken out of circulation. Again, consumerprices would not go up, because there would be no more money incirculation than there was before.

That is one way to deal with the Federal Reserve's Treasurysecurities, but an even neater solution has been proposed: thegovernment could just void out the bonds. Recall that the FederalReserve acquired its government securities without consideration, andthat a contract without consideration is void. (See Chapter 2.)

What would the Federal Reserve use in that case for reserves?Article 30 of the Federal Reserve Act of 1913 gave Congress the rightto rescind or alter the Act at any time. If the Act were modified tomake the Federal Reserve a truly federal agency, it would not need tokeep reserves. It could issue "the full faith and credit of the UnitedStates" directly, without having to back its dollars with governmentbonds. (More on this in Chapter 41.)

Cashing Out the Holdings of Foreign Central Banks

Other major institutional holders of U.S. government debt areforeign central banks. At the end of 2004, foreign holdings of U.S.Treasury debt came to about $1.9 trillion, roughly comparable to the$1.7 trillion held in the Social Security trust fund. Of that sum, foreigncentral banks owned 64 percent, or $1.2 trillion.6

What would cashing out those securities do to the money supply?Again, probably not much. Foreign central banks have no use forconsumer goods, and they do not invest in real estate. They keep U.S.dollars in reserve to support their own currencies in global marketsand to have the dollars available to buy oil as required under a 1974agreement with OPEC. They keep dollars in reserve either as cash oras U.S. securities. Holding U.S. securities is considered to be theequivalent of holding dollars that pay interest.7 If these securities wereturned into cash, the banks would probably just keep the cash in

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reserve in place of the bonds - and count themselves lucky to havetheir dollars back, on what is turning out to be a rather risky investment.Fears have been voiced that the U.S. government may soon be unableto pay even the interest on the federal debt. When that happens, theU.S. can either declare bankruptcy and walk away, or it can buy backthe bonds with newly-issued fiat money. Given the choice, foreigninvestors would probably be happy to accept the fiat money, whichthey could spend on real goods and services in the economy. And ifthey complained, the U.S. government could argue that turnabout isfair play. John Succo is a hedge fund manager who writes on theInternet as "Mr. Practical." He estimates that as much as 90 percentof foreign money used to buy U.S. securities comes from foreign centralbanks, which print their own local currencies, buy U.S. dollars withthem, and then use the dollars to buy U.S. securities.8 The U.S.government would just be giving them their fiat currency back.

Market commentators worry that as foreign central banks cash intheir U.S. securities, U.S. dollars will come flooding back into U.S.markets, hyperinflating the money supply and driving up consumerprices. But we've seen that this predicted result has not materializedin China, although foreign money has been flooding its economy forthousands of years. American factories and industries are now layingoff workers because they lack customers. A return of U.S. dollars toU.S. shores could prime the pump, giving lagging American industriesthe boost they need to again become competitive with the rest of theworld. We are continually being urged to "shop" for the good of theeconomy. What would be so bad about having our dollars returnedto us by some foreigners who wanted to do a little shopping? TheAmerican economy may particularly need a boost after the housingbubble collapses. In the boom years, home refinancings have been amajor source of consumer spending dollars. If the money supplyshrinks by $2 trillion in the next housing correction, as some analystshave predicted, a supply of spending dollars from abroad could bejust the quick fix the economy needs to ward off a deflationary crisis.

There is the concern that U.S. assets could wind up in the hands offoreign owners, but there is not much we can do about that short ofimposing high tariffs or making foreign ownership illegal. We soldthem the bonds and we owe them the cash. But that is a completelydifferent issue from the effects of cashing out foreign-held bonds withfiat dollars, which would give foreigners no more claim to our assetsthan they have with the bonds. In the long run, they would have lessclaim to U.S. assets, since their dollar investments would no longer be

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accruing additional dollars in interest.

Foreign central banks are reducing their reserves of U.S. securitieswhether we like it or not. The tide is rolling out, and U.S. bonds willbe flooding back to U.S. shores. The question for the U.S. governmentis simply who will take up the slack when foreign creditors quit rollingover U.S. debt. Today, when no one else wants the bonds sold atauction, the Fed and its affiliated banks step in and buy them withdollars created for the occasion, creating two sets of securities (thebonds and the cash) where before there was only one. This inflationaryduplication could be avoided if the Treasury were to buy back thebonds itself and just void them out. Congress could then avoid thedebt problem in the future by following the lead of the Guernseyislanders and simply refusing to go into debt. Rather than issuingbonds to meet its costs, it could issue dollars directly.

Prelude to a Dangerous Stock Market Bubble?

Even if cashing out the government's bonds did not inflateconsumer prices, would it not trigger dangerous inflation in the stockmarket, the bond market and the real estate market, the likely targetsof the freed-up money? Let's see ....

In December 2005, the market value of all publicly tradedcompanies in the United States was reported at $15.8 trillion.9 Assumethat fully half the $8 trillion then invested in government securitiesgot reinvested in the stock market. If the government's securities werepaid off gradually as they came due, new money would enter thosemarkets only gradually, moderating any inflationary effects; buteventually, the level of stock market investment would have increasedby 25 percent. Too much?

Not really. The S&P 500 (a stock index tracking 500 companies inleading industries) actually tripled from 1995 to 2000, and no greatdisaster resulted.10 Much of that rise was due to the technology bubble,which later broke; but by 2006, the S&P had gained back most of itslosses. High stock prices are actually good for investors, who makemoney across the board. Stocks are not household necessities thatshoot out of reach for ordinary consumers when prices go up. Thestock market is the casino of people with money to invest. Anyonewith any amount of money can jump in at any time, at any level. Ifthe market continues to go up, investors will make money on resale.Although this may look like a Ponzi scheme, it really isn't so long as

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Web of Debt

> StockCharts.com

$SPX (Weekly) 1500,63

1500.01000.0

■

60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 00

S&P 500 Index1969-2006 Weekly

the stocks are bought with cashrather than debt. Like with theinflated values of prized worksof art, stock prices would go updue to increased demand; andas long as the demand remainedstrong, the stocks wouldmaintain their value.

Stock market bubbles are badonly when they burst, and theyburst because they have beenartificially pumped up in a waythat cannot be sustained. Themarket crash of 1929 resulted because investors were buying stocklargely on credit, thinking the market would continue to go up andthey could pay off the balance from profits. The stock market becamea speculative pyramid scheme, in which most of the money investedin it did not really exist.11 The bubble burst when reserve requirementswere raised, making money much harder to borrow. In the scenarioconsidered here, the market would not be pumped up with borrowedmoney but would be infused with cold hard cash, the permanentmoney received by bondholders for their government bonds. Themarket would go up and stay up. At some point, investors wouldrealize that their shares were overpriced relative to the company'sassets and would find something else to invest in; but that correctionwould be a normal one, not the sudden collapse of a bubble built oncredit with no "real" money in it. There would still be the problem ofspeculative manipulation by big banks and hedge funds, but thatproblem too can be addressed — and it will be, in Chapter 43.

As for the real estate market, cashing out the federal debt wouldprobably have little effect on it. Foreign central banks, Social Securityand other trust funds do not buy real estate; and individual investorswould not be likely to make that leap either, since cashing out theirbonds would give them no more money than they had before. Theirability to buy a house would therefore not have changed. Peoplegenerally hold short-term T-bills as a convenient way to "bank" moneyat a modest interest while keeping it liquid. They hold longer-termTreasury notes and bonds, on the other hand, for a safe and reliableincome stream that is hassle-free. Neither purpose would be servedby jumping into real estate, which is a very illiquid investment that

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Chapter 39 - Liquidating the Federal Debt

does not return profits until the property is sold, except through thelaborious process of trying to keep it rented. People wanting to keeptheir funds liquid would probably just move the cash into bank savingsor checking accounts; while people wanting a hassle-free incomestream would move it into corporate bonds, certificates of deposit andthe like. Another profit-generating possibility for these funds is exploredin Chapter 41.

That just leaves the corporate bond market, which would hardlybe hurt by an influx of new money either. Fresh young companieswould have easier access to startup capital; promising inventions couldbe developed; new products would burst onto the market; jobs wouldbe created; markets would be stimulated. New capital could only begood for productivity.

A final objection that has been raised to paying off the federal debtwith newly-issued fiat money is that foreign lenders would bediscouraged from purchasing U.S. government bonds in the future.The Wizard's response to that argument would probably be, "Sowhat?" Once the government reclaims the power to create moneyfrom the banks, it will no longer need to sell its bonds to investors. Itwill not even need to levy income taxes. It will be able to exercise itssovereign right to issue its own money, debt-free. That is what Britishmonarchs did until the end of the seventeenth century, what theAmerican colonists did in the eighteenth century, and what AbrahamLincoln did in the nineteenth century. It has also been proposed inthe twenty-first century, not just by "cranks and crackpots" in themoney reform camp but by none other than Federal Reserve ChairmanBen Bernanke himself. At least, that is what he appears to haveproposed. The suggestion was made several years before he becameChairman of the Federal Reserve, in a speech that earned him thenickname "Helicopter Ben". . . .

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Chapter 40"HELICOPTER" MONEY:THE FED'S NEWHOT AIR BALLOON

"[I]t will be no trouble to make the balloon. But in all this countrythere is no gas to fill the balloon with, to make it float."

"If it won't float," remarked Dorothy, "it will be of no use to us."

"True," answered Oz. "But there is another way to make it float,which is to fill it with hot air."

- The Wonderful Wizard ofOz,"How the Balloon Was Launched"

Balloon imagery is popular today for describing the perilousstate of the economy. Richard Russell wrote in The Dow TheoryLetter in August 2006, "The US has become a giant credit, debt anddeficit balloon. Can the giant debt-balloon be kept afloat? That'swhat we're going to find out in the coming months." Russell warnedthat we have reached the point where pumping more debt into theballoon is unsustainable, and that the solution of outgoing FedChairman Alan Greenspan was no solution at all. He merely concealedthe M-3 statistics. "If you can't kill the messenger, at least hide him."1The solution of Greenspan's successor Ben Bernanke is not entirelyclear, since like his predecessors he has been playing his cards close tothe chest. Being tight-lipped actually appears to be part of the jobdescription. When he tried to be transparent, he was roundly criticizedfor spooking the market. But in a speech he delivered when he had tobe less cautious about his utterances, Dr. Bernanke advocated whatappeared to be a modern-day version of Lincoln's Greenback solution:instead of filling the balloon with more debt, it could be filled withmoney issued debt-free by the government.

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The speech was made in Washington in 2002 and was titled"Deflation: Making Sure 'It' Doesn't Happen Here." Dr. Bernankestated that the Fed would not be "out of ammunition" to counteractdeflation just because the federal funds rate had fallen to 0 percent.Lowering interest rates was not the only way to get new money intothe economy. He said, "the U.S. government has a technology, called aprinting press (or, today, its electronic equivalent), that allows it to produceas many U.S. dollars as it wishes at essentially no cost."

He added, "One important concern in practice is that calibratingthe economic effects of nonstandard means of injecting money maybe difficult, given our relative lack of experience with such policies."2 Ifthe government was inexperienced with the policies, they were notthe usual "open market operations," in which the government printsbonds, the Fed prints dollars, and they swap stacks, leaving the gov-ernment in debt for money created by the Fed. Dr. Bernanke said thatthe government could print money, and that it could do this at essen-tially no cost. The implication was that the government could createmoney without paying interest, and without having to pay it back tothe Fed or the banks.

Later in the speech he said, "A money-financed tax cut is essen-tially equivalent to Milton Friedman's famous 'helicopter drop' ofmoney." Dropping money from helicopters was Professor Friedman'shypothetical cure for deflation. The "money-financed tax cut" rec-ommended by Dr. Bernanke was evidently one in which taxes wouldbe replaced with money that was simply printed up by the government andspent into the economy. He added, "[I]n lieu of tax cuts, the govern-ment could increase spending on current goods and services or evenacquire existing real or financial assets." The government could reflatethe economy by printing money and buying hard assets with it - as-sets such as real estate and corporate stock! That is what the earlierPopulists had proposed: the government could buy whole industriesand operate them at a profit. The Populists proposed nationalizingessential industries that had been monopolized by giant private car-tels, including the railroads, steel — and the banks. The profits gener-ated by these industries would return to the government, to be used inplace of taxes.

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The Japanese Experiment

Dr. Bernanke went further than merely suggesting the "helicopter-money" solution. He evidently carried it out, and on a massive scale.More accurately, the Japanese carried it out at his behest. During avisit to Japan in May 2003, he said in a speech to the Japanese:

My thesis here is that cooperation between the monetary andfiscal authorities in Japan [the central bank and the government]could help solve the problems that each policymaker faces on itsown. Consider for example a tax cut for households andbusinesses that is explicitly coupled with incremental BOJ [Bankof Japan] purchases of government debt - so that the tax cut is ineffect financed by money creation?

Dr. Bernanke was advising the Japanese government that it couldfinance a tax cut by creating money! (Note that this is easier to do inJapan than in the United States, since the Japanese government actu-ally owns its central bank, the Bank of Japan.4) The same month, theJapanese embarked on what British economist Richard Duncan called"the most aggressive experiment in monetary policy ever conducted."5In a May 2005 article titled "How Japan Financed Global Reflation,"Duncan wrote:

In 2003 and the first quarter of 2004, Japan carried out aremarkable experiment in monetary policy - remarkable in theimpact it had on the global economy and equally remarkable inthat it went almost entirely unnoticed in the financial press. Overthose 15 months, monetary authorities in Japan created ¥35trillion . . . approximately 1% of the world's annual economicoutput. ¥35 trillion . . . would amount to $50 per person ifdistributed equally among the entire population of the planet.In short, it was money creation on a scale never before attemptedduring peacetime.

Why did this occur? There is no shortage of yen in Japan.... Japanese banks have far more deposits than there is demandfor loans .... So, what motivated the Bank of Japan to print somuch more money when the country is already flooded withexcess liquidity?6

Duncan explained that the shortage of money was not actually inJapan. It was in the United States, where the threat of deflation had appearedfor the first time since the Great Depression. The technology bubble of

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the late 1990s had popped in 2000, leading to a serious global economicslowdown in 2001. Before that, the Fed had been bent on curbinginflation; but now it had suddenly switched gears and was focusingon reflation - the intentional reversal of deflation through governmentintervention. Duncan wrote:

Deflation is a central bank's worst nightmare. When prices beginto fall, interest rates follow them down. Once interest rates fallto zero, as is the case in Japan at present, central banks becomepowerless to provide any further stimulus to the economythrough conventional means and monetary policy becomespowerless. The extent of the US Federal Reserve's concern overthe threat of deflation is demonstrated in Fed staff research papersand the speeches delivered by Fed governors at that time. Forexample, in June 2002, the Board of Governors of the FederalReserve System published a Discussion Paper entitled,"Preventing Deflation: Lessons from Japan's Experience in the1990s." The abstract of that paper concluded "... we draw thegeneral lesson from Japan's experience that when inflation andinterest rates have fallen close to zero, and the risk of deflation ishigh, stimulus - both monetary and fiscal - should go beyondthe levels conventionally implied by baseline forecasts of futureinflation and economic activity."

Just how far beyond the conventional the Federal Reserve wasprepared to go was demonstrated in the Japanese experiment, in whichthe Bank of Japan created 35 trillion yen over the course of the follow-ing year. The yen were then traded with the government's Ministryof Finance (MOF) for Japanese government securities, which paid vir-tually no interest. The MOF used the yen to buy approximately $320billion in U.S. dollars from private parties, which were then used tobuy U.S. government bonds.

Duncan wrote, "It is not certain how much of the $320 billion theMOF did invest into US Treasury bonds, but judging by their pastbehavior it is fair to assume that it was the vast majority of thatamount." Assuming all the dollars were so used, the funds were suf-ficient to float 77 percent of the U.S. budget deficit in the fiscal yearending September 30, 2004. The effect of this unprecedented experi-ment, said Duncan, was to finance a broad-based tax cut in the UnitedStates with newly-created money. The tax cuts were made in America,but the money was made in Japan. Three large tax cuts took the U.S.budget from a surplus of $127 billion in 2001 to a deficit of $413 billion

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in 2004. The difference was a deficit of $540 billion, and it was largely"monetized" by the Japanese.

Duncan asked rhetorically, "Was the BOJ/MOF conducting Gov-ernor Bernanke's Unorthodox Monetary Policy on behalf of the Fed?. . . Was the BOJ simply serving as a branch of the Fed, as the FederalReserve Bank of Tokyo, if you will?" If so, Duncan said, "it workedbeautifully":

The Bush tax cuts and the BOJ money creation that helpedfinance them at very low interest rates were the two most im-portant elements driving the strong global economic expansionduring 2003 and 2004. Combined, they produced a very globalreflation. ... US tax cuts and low interest rates fuelled consump-tion in the United States. In turn, growing US consumptionshifted Asia's export-oriented economies into overdrive. Chinaplayed a very important part in that process. . . . China used itslarge trade surpluses with the US to pay for its large trade defi-cits with most of its Asian neighbors, including Japan. The recy-cling of China's US Dollar export earnings explains the incred-ibly rapid "reflation" that began across Asia in 2003 and thatwas still underway at the end of 2004. Even Japan's moribundeconomy began to reflate.

. . . In 2004, the global economy grew at the fastest rate in 30years. Money creation by the Bank of Japan on an unprecedentedscale was perhaps the most important factor responsible for thatgrowth. In fact, ¥35 trillion could have made the differencebetween global reflation and global deflation. How odd that itwent unnoticed.7

The Japanese experiment ended in March 2004, apparently becauseno more intervention was required. The Fed had agreed to beginraising interest rates, putting a stop to the flight from the dollar; andstrong economic growth in the United States had created higher thananticipated tax revenues, reducing the need for supplemental budgetfunding. The experiment had "worked beautifully" to reduce deflationand provide the money for more U.S. government deficits, except forone thing: the U.S. government was now in debt to a foreign powerfor money the Japanese had created with accounting entries — moneythe U.S. government could have created itself.

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Can You Trust a Pirate?

After the Japanese experiment came the Caribbean experiment,which was discussed in Chapter 38. Joseph Stroupe, editor of GlobalEvents Magazine, warned in 2004:

[International support for the dollar and for related US economicand foreign policies is noticeably weakening, at a time when it ismost needed to support an unprecedented and mushrooming

mountain load of debt The appetite of the big Asian economies

to continue buying dollar assets is waning .... Hence thepossibility of a Twin Towers-like vertical collapse of the USeconomy is becoming greater, not lesser.8

That was the fear, but collapse was averted when "the Pirates ofthe Carribean" stepped in to pick up the unsold bonds, evidently at asubstantial loss to themselves. As noted earlier, these traders musthave been fronts for the Federal Reserve itself, which alone has pocketsdeep enough to pull off such a maneuver and absorb the loss. (SeeChapter 38.) The Fed manipulates markets with accounting-entrymoney funneled through its "primary dealers" - a list of about 30investment houses authorized to trade government securities,including Goldman Sachs, Morgan Stanley, and Merrill Lynch.9 Thesebanks then use the funds to buy government bonds, in the sort ofmaneuver that might be called "money laundering" if it were doneprivately. (See Chapter 33.)

In December 2005, M3 increased in a single week by $58.7 billion- a 30 percent annualized rate of growth. Financial adviser RobertMcHugh compared this increase to the hyperinflation seen in bananarepublics. "This is nuts folks," he wrote, "unless there is an incrediblerisk out there we are not being told about. That is a lot of money forthe Plunge Protection Team's arsenal to buy markets - stocks, bonds,currencies, whatever."10

The question is, can this secretive private cartel be trusted with somuch unregulated power? Wouldn't it be cheaper and safer to givethe power to create dollars to Congress itself, with full accountabilityand full disclosure to the public? Congress would not have to concealthe fact that it was financing its own debt. It would not even have togo into debt. It could just create the money in full view in an accountableway. The power to create money is given to Congress in theConstitution. Debt-free government-created money was the financialsystem that got the country through the American Revolution and the

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Web of Debt

Civil War; the system endorsed by Franklin, Jefferson, and Lincoln;the system that Henry Clay, Henry Carey and the AmericanNationalists called the "American system." The government couldsimply acknowledge that it was pumping money into the economy. Itcould explain that the economy needs the government's money toprevent a dollar collapse, and that the cheapest and most honest wayto do it is by creating the money directly and then spending it onprojects that "promote the general welfare." Laundering the moneythrough non-producing middlemen is giving the people'sConstitutionally-ordained money-creating power away.

The Fear of Giving Big Government Even More Power

The usual objections to returning the power to create money toCongress are that (a) it would be inflationary, and (b) it would give acorrupt government even more power. But as will be detailed in Chap-ter 44, government-issued money would actually be less inflationarythan the system we have now; and it is precisely because power andmoney corrupt that money creation needs to be done by a public body,exercised in full view and with full accountability. We can watch ourcongresspersons deliberating every day on C-SPAN. If the people'smoney isn't being spent for the benefit of the people, we can vote ourrepresentatives out.

What has allowed government to become corrupted today is thatit is actually run by the money cartel. Big Business holds all the cards,because its affiliated banks have monopolized the business of issuingand lending the national money supply, a function the Constitutiondelegated solely to Congress. What hides behind the banner of "freeenterprise" today is a system in which giant corporate monopolieshave used their affiliated banking trusts to generate unlimited fundsto buy up competitors, the media, and the government itself, forcingtruly independent private enterprise out. Big private banks are al-lowed to create money out of nothing, lend it at interest, foreclose onthe collateral, and determine who gets credit and who doesn't. Theycan advance massive loans to their affiliated corporations and hedgefunds, which use the money to raid competitors and manipulate mar-kets.

If some players have the power to create money and others don't,the playing field is not "level" but allows some favored players to domi-nate and coerce others. These giant cartels can be brought to heel

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Chapter 40 - Helicopter Money

only by cutting off their source of power and returning it to its rightfulsovereign owners, the people themselves. Private enterprise needspublicly-operated police, courts and laws to keep corporate predatorsat bay. It also needs a system of truly national banks, in which thepower to create the money and advance the credit of the people isretained by the people. We trust government with sweeping powersto declare and conduct wars, provide for the general welfare, andestablish and enforce laws. Why not trust it to create the nationalmoney supply in all its forms?

The bottom line is that somebody has to have the power to createmoney. We've seen that gold is too scarce and too inelastic to be thenational money supply, at least without an expandable fiat-moneysystem to back it up; and somebody has to create that fiat system.There are only three choices for the job: a private banking cartel, localcommunities acting separately, or the collective body of the peopleacting through their representative government. Today we areoperating with option #1, a private banking cartel, and it has broughtthe system to the brink of collapse. The privately-controlled FederalReserve, which was chartered specifically to "maintain a stablecurrency," has allowed the money supply to balloon out of control.The Fed manipulates the money supply and regulates its value behindclosed doors, in blatant violation of the Constitution and the antitrustlaws. Yet it not only can't be held to account; it doesn't even have toexplain its rationale or reveal what is going on.

Option #2, the local community fiat alternative, is basically thenational fiat currency alternative on a smaller scale. As onecommentator put it, what would you have more confidence in - thefull faith and credit of Ithaca, New York (population 30,000), or thefull faith and credit of the United States? The fiat currency of thenational community has the full force of the nation behind it. Andeven if the politicians in charge of managing it turn out to be no lesscorrupt than private bankers, the money created by the governmentwill be debt-free. Shifting the power to create money to Congress canrelieve future generations of the burden of perpetual interest paymentsto an elite class of financial oligarchs who have advanced nothing oftheir own to earn it. The banking spider that has the country trappedin its debt web could be decapitated, returning national sovereigntyto the people themselves.

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Section VI

VANQUISHING THE DEBT SPIDER:A BANKING SYSTEM THAT SERVESTHE PEOPLE

The great spider was lying asleep when the Lion found him ....It had a great mouth, with a row of sharp teeth a foot long; but itshead was joined to the pudgy body by a neck as slender as a wasp'swaist. This gave the Lion a hint of the best way to attack the creature.. . . [WJith one blow of his heavy paw, all armed with sharp claws, heknocked the spider's head from its body.

- The Wonderful Wizard ofOz,"The Lion Becomes the King of Beasts"

Chapter 41

RESTORING NATIONALSOVEREIGNTY WITH A TRULYNATIONAL BANKING SYSTEM

"If I put an end to your enemy, will you bow down to me and obeyme as the King of the Forest?" inquired the Lion.

"We will do that gladly," replied the tiger. . . .

"Take good care of these friends of mine," said the Lion, "and I willgo at once to fight the monster."

— The Wonderful Wizard ofOz,"The Lion Becomes the King of Beasts"

William Jennings Bryan, the Cowardly Lion of The Wizard of Oz,proved his courage by challenging the banking cartel's right to createthe national money supply. He said in the speech that won him theDemocratic nomination in 1896:

[W]e believe that the right to coin money and issue money is a functionof government. . . . Those who are opposed to this proposition tellus that the issue of paper money is a function of the bank andthat the government ought to go out of the banking business. Istand with Jefferson . . . and tell them, as he did, that the issue ofmoney is a function of the government and that the banks should goout of the governing business. . . . [W]hen we have restored themoney of the Constitution, all other necessary reforms will bepossible, and . . . until that is done there is no reform that can beaccomplished.

The "money of the Constitution" was money created by the peoplerather than the banks. Technically, the Constitution gave Congressthe exclusive power only to "coin" money; but the Constitution wasdrafted in the eighteenth century, when most forms of money in use

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today either did not exist or were not recognized as money. ThomasJefferson said that Constitutions needed to be updated to suit the times.A contemporary version of the Constitutional provision that "Con-gress shall have the power to coin money" would give Congress theexclusive power to create the national currency in all its forms.'

That would mean either abolishing the Federal Reserve or makingit what most people think it now is - a truly federal agency. If theFederal Reserve were an arm of the U.S. government, the dollars itgenerated could go directly into the U.S. Treasury, without the needto add to a crippling federal debt by "funding" them with bonds. Thatwould take care of 3 percent of the U.S. money supply, but what aboutthe other 97 percent that is now created as commercial loans? Wouldgiving Congress the exclusive power to create money mean the gov-ernment would have to go into the commercial lending business?

Perhaps, but why not? As Bryan said, banking is the government'sbusiness, by Constitutional mandate. At least, that part of banking isthe government's business that involves creating new money. Therest of the lending business could continue to be conducted privately,just as it is now. Banks would just join those non-bank lendinginstitutions that do not create the money they lend but merely recyclepre-existing funds, including finance companies, pension funds, mutualfunds, insurance companies, and securities dealers.1 Banks would dowhat most people think they do now — borrow money at a low interestrate and lend it at a higher rate.

Returning the power to create money to the government would bemore equitable and more Constitutional than the current system, butwhat would it do to bank profits? That was the concern of governmentofficials who reviewed such a proposal recently in England ....

The Fate of a British Proposal for Monetary Reform

The Bank of England was actually nationalized in 1946, but themonetary scheme did not change much as a result. The governmenttook over the function of printing paper money; but in England, as inthe United States, printed paper money makes up only a very smallpercentage of the money supply. The bankers still have the power to

' As an aside to community currency advocates: this would not prevent localorganizations from issuing private currencies, which are not the nationalmedium of exchange but are contractual agreements between private parties.

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create money as loans, leaving them in control of the money spigots.3In Monetary Reform: Making It Happen (2003), James Robertsonobserved that 97 percent of Britain's money supply is now created bybanks when they advance credit. The result is a grossly unfair windfallto the banks, which get the use of money that is properly an asset ofthe people. He proposed reforming the system so that it would beillegal for banks to create money as loans, just as it is illegal to forgecoins or counterfeit banknotes. Only the central bank could createnew money. Commercial banks would have to borrow existing moneyand relend it, just as non-bank financial institutions do now. InRobertson's proposed system, new money created by the central bankwould not go directly to the commercial banks but would be given tothe government to spend into circulation, where it would eventuallyfind its way back to the banks and could be recycled by them as loans.4

It sounded good in theory, but when the plan was run past severalgovernment officials, they maintained that the banks would go brokeunder such a scheme. Depriving banks of the right to advance crediton the "credit multiplier" system (the British version of fractionalreserve lending) would increase the costs of borrowing; would raisethe costs of payment services; would force banks to cut costs, closebranches and reduce jobs; and would damage the internationalcompetitiveness of British banks and therefore of the British economyas a whole. An official with the title of Shadow Chancellor of theExchequer warned, "Legislating against the credit multiplier wouldlead to the migration from the City of London of the largest collectionof banks in the world. It would be a disaster for the British economy."

Another official bearing the title of Treasury Minister argued that"if banks were obliged to bid for funds from lenders in order to makeloans to their customers, the costs to banks of extending credit wouldbe significant, adversely affecting business investment, especially ofsmall and medium-sized firms." This official wrote in an August 2001letter:

It is evident that this proposal would cause a dramatic loss inprofits to the banks - all else [being] equal they would still facethe costs of running the payments system but would not be ableto make profitable loans using the deposits held in currentaccounts. In this case, it is highly likely that banks will attemptto maintain their profitability by re-locating to avoid therestriction on their operations that the proposed reform involves.5

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And there was the rub: in London, banking is very big business. Ifthe banks were to move en masse to the Continent, the British economycould collapse like a house of cards.

The 100 Percent Reserve Solution

A proposal similar to the Robertson plan was presented to theU.S. Congress by Representative Jerry Voorhis in the 1940s. Called"the 100 Percent Reserve Solution," it was first devised in 1926 byProfessor Frederick Soddy of Oxford and was revived in 1933 byProfessor Henry Simons of the University of Chicago. The plan wasto require banks to establish 100 percent reserve backing for theirdeposits, something they could do by borrowing enough newly-createdmoney from the U.S. Treasury to make up the shortfall.

"With this elegant plan," wrote Stephen Zarlenga in The LostScience of Money, "all the bank credit money the banks have createdout of thin air, through fractional reserve banking, would betransformed into U.S. government legal tender - real, honest money."The plan was elegant, but like the later Robertson proposal, it wouldhave been quite costly for the banks. It died when RepresentativeVoorhis lost his seat to Richard Nixon in a vicious campaign fundedby the bankers.6

The 100 Percent Reserve Solution was revived by Robert de Fremeryin a series of articles published in the 1960s.7 Under his proposal,banks would have two sections, a deposit or checking-account sectionand a savings-and-loan section:

The deposit section would merely be a warehouse for money.All demand deposits would be backed dollar for dollar by actualcurrency in the vaults of the bank. The savings-and-loan sectionwould sell Certificates of Deposit (CDs)" of varying maturities -from 30 days to 20 years - to obtain funds that could be safelyloaned for comparable periods of time. Thus money obtainedby the sale of 30-day, one-year and five-year CDs, etc., could beloaned for 30 days, one year and five years respectively - notlonger. Banks would then be fully liquid at all times and neveragain need fear a liquidity crisis.

11 Certificate of deposit (CD): a time deposit with a bank which bears a specificmaturity date (from three months to five years) and a specified interest rate, muchlike bonds.

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The liquidity crisis de Fremery was concerned with came from"borrowing short and lending long" — borrowing short-term depositsand committing them to long-term loans — a common practice thatexposes banks to the risk that their depositors will withdraw theirmoney before the loans come due, leaving the banks short of lendablefunds. Just such a liquidity crisis materialized in the summer of 2007,when holders of collateralized debt obligations or CDOs (securitiesbacked by income-producing assets) discovered that what they thoughtwere triple-A investments were infected with "toxic" subprime debt.The value of the CDOs crashed, making banks and other investorseither reluctant or unable to lend as before; and that included lendingthe money market funds relied on by banks to get through a short-term shortage. The other option for banks short of funds is to borrowfrom the Fed, which can advance accounting-entry money as needed;and that is what it has been doing, with a vengeance. Recall the $38billion credit line the Fed made available on a single day in August2007. (See Chapter 2.) This "credit" was money created out of thinair, something central banks are considered entitled to do as "lendersof last resort."8 The taxpayer bailouts that used to cause politicians tolose votes are being replaced with the hidden tax of a massive stealthinflation of the money supply by the "banker's bank" the FederalReserve, inflating prices and reducing the value of the dollar.

DeFremery's 100 percent reserve solution would have avoided thissort of banking crisis and its highly inflationary solution by limitingbanks to lending only money they actually have. The AmericanMonetary Institute, an organization founded by Stephen Zarlenga forfurthering monetary reform, has drafted a model American MonetaryAct that would achieve this result by imposing a 100 percent reserverequirement on all checking-type bank accounts. As in de Fremery'sproposal, these accounts could not be the basis for loans but wouldsimply be "a warehousing and transferring service for which fees arecharged." The Federal Reserve System would be incorporated intothe U.S. Treasury, and all new money would be created by these mergedgovernment agencies. New money would be spent into circulation bythe government to promote the general welfare, monitored in a wayso that it was neither inflationary nor deflationary. It would be spenton infrastructure, including education and health care, creating jobs,re-invigorating local economies, and re-funding government at alllevels. Banks would lend in the way most people think they do now:by simply acting as intermediaries that accepted savings deposits andlent them out to borrowers.9

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A model Monetary Reform Act drafted by Patrick Carmack, authorof the popular documentary video The Money Masters, would go evenfurther. It would impose a 100 percent reserve requirement on allbank deposits, including savings deposits. Recall that most "savingsdeposits" are still "transaction accounts," in which the money is readilyavailable to the depositor. If it is available to the depositor, it cannothave been "lent" to someone else without duplicating the funds. UnderCarmack's proposal, banks that serviced depositors could not lend atall unless they were using their own money. If banks wanted to makeloans of other people's money, they would have to set up separateinstitutions for that purpose, not called "banks," which could lendonly pre-existing funds. Banks making loans would join those otherlending institutions that can lend only when they first have the moneyin hand. "Deposits" would not be counted as "reserves" against whichloans could be made but would be held in trust for the exclusive use ofthe depositors.10

How to Eliminate Fractional Reserve BankingWithout Eliminating the Banks

If the power to create the national money supply is going to be theexclusive domain of Congress, 100 percent backing will have to berequired for any private bank deposits that can be withdrawn ondemand, to avoid the electronic duplication that is the source of growthin the money supply today. But like the Robertson plan proposed inEngland, proposals for requiring 100 percent reserves have met withthe objection that they could bankrupt the banks. We've seen thatwhen a bank makes a loan, it merely writes a deposit into theborrower's account, treating the deposit as a "liability" of the bank.This is money the bank owes to the borrower in return for theborrower's promise to pay it back. Under a 100 percent reserve system,all of these bank liabilities would have to be "funded" with real money.Federal Reserve Statistical Release H.8 put the total "loans and leasesin bank credit" of all U.S. banks as of April 2007 at $6 trillion.11 Sincebanks today operate with minimal reserves (10 percent or even less),they might have to borrow 90 percent of $6 trillion in "real" money tomeet a 100 percent reserve requirement. Where would they find themoney to service these loans? They would have to raise interest ratesand reduce the interest they paid to depositors, shrinking their profitmargins, squeezing their customers, and driving them into the arms

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of those non-bank competitors that have already usurped a majorportion of the loan market. Just the rumor that the banks were goingto have to incur substantial new debt could make bank share valuesplummet.

William Hummel is not actually in the money reform camp, but ina December 2006 critique of the 100 percent reserve solution, he raisedsome interesting issues and alternatives. Rather than borrowing fromthe government, he suggested that the banks could sell their existingloans to investors, getting the loans off their books.12 That is not actu-ally a new idea. It is something the banks have been doing for a num-ber of years. In 2007, "securitized" mortgage debts (mortgages slicedinto mortgage-backed securities) were reported at $6.5 trillion, or aboutone-half of all outstanding mortgage debt (totaling $13 trillion)."Securitized" debt is debt that has been off-loaded by selling it toinvestors, who collect the interest as it comes due. In effect, the bankshave merely acted as middlemen, bringing investors with funds to-gether with borrowers who need funding. This is the role of "invest-ment banks" - putting together deals, finding investors for projectsin need of funds. It is also the role played by bank intermediaries in"Islamic banking." The bank sets up profit-sharing arrangements inwhich investors buy "stock" rather than interest-bearing "bonds."

Where could enough investors be found to fund close to $6 trillionin outstanding bank loans? Recall the nearly $9 trillion in bond moneythat would be freed up if the federal debt were paid off by "monetiz-ing" it with new Greenback dollars. People who had previously storedtheir savings in government bonds would be looking for a steady sourceof income to replace the interest stream they had just lost. Investmentfund managers, quick to see an opportunity, would no doubt formfunds just for this purpose. They could buy up the banks' existingloans with money from their investors and bundle them into securi-ties. The investors would then be paid interest as it accrued on theloans. In this way, the same Greenback dollars that had "monetized"the federal debt could be used to monetize the $6 trillion in bank loanscreated with accounting entries by the banks.

Investors today have become leery of buying securitized debt, butthis is due largely to lax disclosure and regulation. If the securitieslaws were strengthened so that all risks were known and on the table,at some price investors could no doubt be found; and if they couldn't,the banks could still turn to the Fed for an advance of funds — whichis just what they have been doing, accepting a lifeline from the Fed inthe form of massive bailouts with highly inflationary accounting-entrymoney. The difference under a 100 percent reserve system would be

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that the Federal Reserve would actually be federal, operating its bailoutsin a way that benefited the people rather than just inflating their dollarsaway. (More on this in Chapter 43.)

The Banking System Is Already Bankrupt

To the charge that imposing a 100 percent reserve requirementcould bankrupt the banks, the Wizard's retort might be that the bankingsystem is already bankrupt. The 300-year fractional-reserve Ponzischeme has reached its mathematical end-point. The bankers' chickenshave come home to roost, and only a radical overhaul will save the system.Nouriel Roubini, Professor of Economics at New York University anda former advisor to the U.S. Treasury, gave this bleak assessment in aNovember 2007 newsletter:

I now see the risk of a severe and worsening liquidity and creditcrunch leading to a generalized meltdown of the financial system ofa severity and magnitude like we have never observed before. In thisextreme scenario whose likelihood is increasing we could see ageneralized run on some banks; and runs on a couple of weaker(non-bank) broker dealers that may go bankrupt with severeand systemic ripple effects on a mass of highly leveragedderivative instruments that will lead to a seizure of thederivatives markets . . .; massive losses on money market funds. . . ; ever growing defaults and losses ($500 billion plus) insubprime, near prime and prime mortgages ...; severe problemsand losses in commercial real estate...; the drying up of liquidityand credit in a variety of asset backed securities putting the entiremodel of securitization at risk; runs on hedge funds and otherfinancial institutions that do not have access to the Fed's lenderof last resort support; [and] a sharp increase in corporate defaultsand credit spreads .... 13

The private banking system can no longer be saved with a streamof accounting-entry "reserves" to support an expanding pyramid of"fractional reserve" lending. If private banks are going to salvagetheir role in the economy, they are going to have to move into someother line of work. Chris Cook is a British market consultant whowas formerly director of the International Petroleum Exchange. Heobserves that the true role of banks is to serve as guarantors andfacilitators of deals. The seller wants his money now, but the buyerdoesn't have it; he wants to pay over time. So the bank steps in and

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advances "credit" by creating a deposit from which the borrower canpay the seller. The bank then collects the buyer's payments overtime, adding interest as its compensation for assuming the risk thatthe buyer won't pay. The glitch in this model is that the banks don'tcreate the interest, so larger and larger debt-bubbles have to be createdto service the collective debt. A mathematically neater way to achievethis result is through "investment banking" or "Islamic banking" —bringing investors together with projects in need of funds. The moneyalready exists; the bank just arranges the deal and the issuance ofstock. The arrangement is a joint venture rather than a creditor-debtorrelationship. The investor makes money only if the company makesmoney, and the company makes money only if it produces goods andservices that add value to the economy. The parasite becomes a partner}4Businesses and individuals do need a ready source of credit, andthat credit could be created from nothing and advanced to borrowersunder a 100 percent reserve system, just as is done now. The differencewould be that the credit would originate with the government, whichalone has the sovereign right to create money; and the interest on itwould be returned to the public purse. In effect, the government wouldjust be serving as a "credit clearing exchange," or as the accountant ina community system of credits and debits. (More on this later.)

A System of National Bank Branchesto Service Basic Public Banking Needs?

Hummel points out that if private banks could no longer lend theirdeposits many times over, they would have little incentive to servicethe depository needs of the public. Depository functions are basicallyclerical and offer little opportunity for income except fees for service.Who would service the public's banking needs if the banks lost interestin that business? In How Credit-Money Shapes the Economy, ProfessorGuttman notes that our basic banking needs are fairly simple. Weneed a safe place to keep our money and a practical way to transfer itto others. These services could be performed by a government agencyon the model of the now-defunct U.S. Postal Savings System, whichoperated successfully from 1911 to 1967, providing a safe and efficientplace for customers to save and transfer funds. It issued U.S. PostalSavings Bonds in various denominations that paid annual interest, aswell as Postal Savings Certificates and domestic money orders.15 TheU.S. Postal Savings System was set up to get money out of hiding,

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attract the savings of immigrants accustomed to saving at post officesin their native countries, provide safe depositories for people who hadlost confidence in private banks, and furnish more convenientdepositories for working people than were provided by private banks.(Post offices then had longer hours than banks, being open from 8a.m. to 6 p.m. six days a week.) The postal system paid two percentinterest on deposits annually. The minimum deposit was $1 and themaximum was $2,500. Savings in the system spurted to $1.2 billionduring the 1930s and jumped again during World War II, peaking in1947 at almost $3.4 billion. The U.S. Postal Savings System was shutdown in 1967, not because it was inefficient but because it becameunnecessary after private banks raised their interest rates and offeredthe same governmental guarantees that the postal savings system had.16The services offered by a modern system of federally-operated bankbranches would have to be modified to reflect today's conditions, butthe point is that the government has done these things before andcould do them again. Indeed, if "fractional reserve" banking wereeliminated, those functions could fall to the government by default.Hummel suggests that it would make sense to simplify the bankingbusiness by transferring the depository role to a system of bank branchesacting as one entity under the Federal Reserve. Among otheradvantages, he says:

Since all deposits would be entries in a common computernetwork, determining balances and clearing checks could be doneinstantly, thereby eliminating checking system float"' and itslogistic complexities. . . .

With the Fed operating as the sole depository, paymentswould only involve the transfer of deposits between accountswithin a single bank. This would allow for instant clearing,eliminate the nuisance of checking system float, and significantlyreduce associated costs. Additional advantages include theelimination of any need for deposit insurance, and endingovernight sweeps" and other sterile games that banks play to

III Float: the time that elapses between when a check is deposited and the fundsare available to the depositor, during which the bank is collecting payment fromthe payer's bank.

IV The overnight sweep is a tactic for maximizing interest by " sweeping" fundsnot being immediately used in a low-interest account into a high-interest ac-count, where they remain until the balance in the low-interest account dropsbelow a certain minimum.

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get around the fractional reserve requirement.17

In Hummel's model, the Fed would be the sole depository andonly its branches would be called "banks." Institutions formerly calledbanks would have to close down their depository operations andwould become "private financial institutions" (PFIs), along with fi-nance companies, pension funds, mutual funds, insurance companiesand the like. Some banks would probably sell out to existing PFIs.PFIs could borrow from the Fed just as banks do now, but the interestrate would be set high enough to discourage them from engaging in"purely speculative games in the financial markets." Without the de-pository role, banks would no longer need the same number of branchoffices. The Fed would probably offer to buy them in setting up itsown depository branch offices. Hummel suggests that a logical wayto proceed would be to gradually increase the reserve ratio require-ment on existing depositories until it reached 100 percent.

The National Credit Card

A system of publicly-owned bank branches could also solve thecredit card problem. Hummel notes that imposing a 100 percent reserverequirement on the banks would mean the end of the private creditcard business. Recall that when a bank issues credit against acustomer's charge slip, the charge slip is considered a "negotiableinstrument" that becomes an "asset" against which the bank createsa "liability" in the form of a deposit. The bank balances its bookswithout debiting its own assets or anyone else's account. The bank isthus creating new money, something private banks could no longerdo under a 100 percent reserve system. But the ability to get readycredit against the borrower's promise to pay is an important servicethat would be sorely missed if banks could no longer engage in it. Ifyour ability to use your credit card were contingent on your bank'sability to obtain scarce funds in a competitive market, you might find,when you went to pay your restaurant bill, that credit had been deniedbecause your bank was out of lendable funds.

The notion that money has to "be there" before it can be borrowedis based on the old commodity theory of money. Theorists from CottonMather to Benjamin Franklin to Michael Linton (who designed theLETS system) have all defined "money" as something else. It is simply"credit" - an advance against the borrower's promise to repay. Creditoriginates with that promise, not with someone else's deposit ofsomething valuable in the bank. Credit is not dependent on someone

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else having given up his rights to an asset for a period of time, and"reserves" are not necessary for advancing it. What is wrong with thecurrent system is not that money is advanced as a credit against theborrower's promise to repay but that the interest on this advance accrues toprivate banks that gave up nothing of their own to earn it. This problemcould be rectified by turning the extension of credit over to a system oftruly national banks, which would be authorized to advance the "fullfaith and credit of the United States" as agents of Congress, which isauthorized to create the national money supply under the Constitution.

Credit card services actually are an extension of the depositoryfunctions of banks. The link with bank deposits is particularly obviousin the case of those debit cards that can be used to trigger ATMmachines to spit out twenty dollar bills. When you make a transfer orwithdrawal on your debit card, the money is immediately transferredout of your account, just as if you had written a check. When you useyour credit card, the link is not quite so obvious, since the moneydoesn't come out of your account until later; but it is still your moneythat is being advanced, not someone else's. Again, your promise topay becomes an asset and a liability of the bank at the same time,without bringing any of the bank's or any other depositor's moneyinto the deal. The natural agency for handling this sort of transactionwould be an institution that is authorized both to deal with depositsand to create credit-money with accounting entries, something a truly"national" bank could do as an agent of Congress. A governmentbanking agency would not be driven by the profit motive to gougedesperate people with exorbitant interest charges. Credit could beextended at interest rates that were reasonable, predictable and fixed.In appropriate circumstances, credit might even be extended interest-free. (More on this in Chapter 42.)

Old Banks Under New Management

The branch offices set up by a truly federal Federal Reserve wouldnot need to be new entities, and they would not need to take over thewhole banking business. They could be existing banks that had beenbought by the government or picked up in bankruptcy. As we'll see inChapter 43, the same mega-banks that handle a major portion of thenation's credit card business today may already be insolvent, makingthem prime candidates for FDIC receivership and government takeover.If just those banking giants were made government agencies, they

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Web of Debt

might provide enough branches to service the depository and creditcard needs of the citizenry, leaving the lending of pre-existing fundsto private financial institutions just as is done now.

Note too that the government would not actually have to run thesenew bank branches. The FDIC could just hire new management orgive the old management new guidelines, redirecting them to operatethe business for the benefit of the public. As in any corporateacquisition, not much would need to change beyond the names on thestock certificates. Business could carry on as before. The employeeswould just be under new management. The banks could advanceloans as accounting entries, just as they do now. The difference wouldbe that interest on advances of credit, rather than going into privatevaults for private profit, would go into the coffers of the government.The "full faith and credit of the United States" would become an asset of theUnited States.

A Money Supply That Regulates Itself?

Hummel points to another wrinkle that would need to be workedout in a 100 percent reserve system: the extension of credit by privatebanks plays an important role in regulating the national money supply.Public borrowing is the natural determinant of monetary growth. Whenbanks extend credit, the money supply expands naturally to meet theneeds of growth and productivity. If a 100 percent reserve requirementwere imposed, the money supply could not grow in this organic way,so growth would have to be brought about by some artificial means.

One alternative would be for the government to expand the moneysupply according to a set formula. Milton Friedman suggested a fixed4 percent per year. But such a system would not allow for modifyingthe money supply to respond to external shocks or varying internalneeds. Another alternative would be to delegate monetary expansionto a monetary board of some sort, which would be authorized todetermine how much new money the government could issue in anygiven period. But that alternative too would be subject to the vagariesof human error and manipulation for private gain. We've seen theroller-coaster results when the Fed has been allowed to manipulatethe money supply by arbitrarily changing interest rates and reserverequirements. The Great Depression was blamed on Fed tinkering.

Why does the money supply need to be manipulated by the FederalReserve? Consumer loans are self-liquidating: the new money they

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Chapter 41 - Restoring Natonal Soverignty

create is eventually paid back and zeroes out. But that result is skewedby the charging of interest, and by the fact that the burgeoning federaldebt never gets repaid but just keeps growing. The money supplyexpands because government securities (or debt) are sold to the FederalReserve and to commercial banks, which buy them with money createdout of thin air; and it is this unchecked source of expansion that has tobe regulated by artificial means. In a system without a federal debtand without interest, consumer debt should be able to regulate itself.That sort of model is found in the LETS system, in which "money" iscreated when someone pays someone else with "credits," and it isliquidated when the credits are used up. Here is a simple example:

Jane bakes cookies for Sam. Sam pays Jane one LETS credit bycrediting her account and debiting his. "Money" has just been created.Sam washes Sue's car, for which Sue gives Sam one LETS credit,extinguishing the debit in his account and creating one in hers. Suebabysits for Jane, who pays with the LETS credit Sam gave her. Thebooks are now balanced, and no inflation has resulted. There is nolonger any "money" in the system, but there is still plenty of "credit,"which can be created by anyone just by doing work for someone else.

The LETS system is a community currency system in which nogold or other commodity is needed to make it work. "Money" (or"credit") is generated by the participants themselves. Projecting thisaccount-tallying model onto the larger community known as a nation,money would come into existence when it was borrowed from thecommunity-owned bank, and it would be extinguished as the loanswere repaid. That is actually how money is generated now; but thecreators of this public credit are not the community at large but areprivate bankers who distort the circular flow of the medium ofexchange by siphoning off a windfall profit in the form of interest.The charging of interest, in turn, creates the "impossible contract"problem - the spiral of inflation and unrepayable debt resulting whenmore money must be paid back than is created in the form of loans. Incommunity LETS systems, this problem is avoided because interest isnot charged. But an interest-free national system is unlikely any timesoon, and interest serves some useful functions. It encourages borrowersto repay their debts quickly, discourages speculation, compensateslenders for foregoing the use of their money for a period of time, andprovides retired people with a reliable income. How could these benefitsbe retained without triggering the "impossible contract" problem? AsBenjamin Franklin might have said, "That is simple" ....

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Chapter 42THE QUESTION OF INTEREST:BEN FRANKLIN SOLVES THEIMPOSSIBLE CONTRACT PROBLEM

''Back where I come from, we have universities, seats of greatlearning, where men go to become great thinkers, and when theycome out, they think deep thoughts, and with no more brains thanyou have. But they have one thing that you haven't got, a diploma."

- The Wizard ofOz to the Scarecrow

Like Andrew Jackson and Abraham Lincoln, Benjamin Franklinwas a self-taught genius. He invented bifocals, the Franklinstove, the odometer, and the lightning rod. He was also called "thefather of paper money." He did not actually devise the banking sys-tem used in colonial Pennsylvania, but he wrote about it, promoted it,and understood its superiority over the private British gold-based sys-tem. When the directors of the Bank of England asked what wasresponsible for the booming economy of the young colonies, Franklinexplained that the colonial governments issued their own money,which they both lent and spent into the economy. He is reported tohave said:

[A] legitimate government can both spend and lend moneyinto circulation, while banks can only lend significant amountsof their promissory bank notes .... Thus, when your bankershere in England place money in circulation, there is always adebt principal to be returned and usury to be paid. The resultis that you have always too little credit in circulation . . . andthat which circulates, all bears the endless burden of unpay-able debt and usury.

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A money supply created by banks was never sufficient, becausethe bankers created only the principal and not the interest needed topay back their loans. A government, on the other hand, could not onlylend but spend money into the economy, covering the interest shortfalland keeping the money supply in balance. In an article titled "AMonetary System for the New Millennium," Canadian money reformadvocate Roger Langrick explains this concept in contemporary terms.He begins by illustrating the mathematical impossibility inherent in asystem of bank-created money lent at interest:

[I]magine the first bank which prints and lends out $100.For its efforts it asks for the borrower to return $110 in one year;that is it asks for 10% interest. Unwittingly, or maybe wittingly,the bank has created a mathematically impossible situation. Theonly way in which the borrower can return 110 of the bank'snotes is if the bank prints, and lends, $10 more at 10%interest. . . .

The result of creating 100 and demanding 110 in return, isthat the collective borrowers of a nation are forever chasing aphantom which can never be caught; the mythical $10 that werenever created. The debt in fact is unrepayable. Each time $100is created for the nation, the nation's overall indebtedness to thesystem is increased by $110. The only solution at present isincreased borrowing to cover the principal plus the interest ofwhat has been borrowed.1

The better solution, says Langrick, is to allow the government toissue enough new debt-free Greenbacks to cover the interest chargesnot created by the banks as loans:

Instead of taxes, government would be empowered to createmoney for its own expenses up to the balance of the debt shortfall.Thus, if the banking industry created $100 in a year, thegovernment would create $10 which it would use for its ownexpenses. Abraham Lincoln used this successfully when hecreated $500 million of "greenbacks" to fight the Civil War.

In Langrick's example, a private banking industry pockets theinterest, which must be replaced every year by a 10 percent issue ofnew Greenbacks; but there is another possibility. The loans could beadvanced by the government itself. The interest would then return tothe government and could be spent back into the economy in a circularflow, without the need to continually issue more money to cover the

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interest shortfall. Government as the only interest-charging lendermight not be a practical solution today, but it is a theoretical extremethat can be contrasted with the existing system to clarify the issues.Compare these two hypothetical models:

Bad Witch/Good Witch Scenarios

The Wicked Witch of the West rules over a dark fiefdom with asingle private bank owned by the Witch. The bank issues and lendsall the money in the realm, charging an interest rate of 10 percent.The Witch prints 100 witch-dollars, lends them to her constituents,and demands 110 back. The people don't have the extra 10, so theWitch creates 10 more on her books and lends them as well. Themoney supply must continually increase to cover the interest, whichwinds up in the Witch's private coffers. She gets progressively richer,as the people slip further into debt. She uses her accumulated profitsto buy things she wants. She is particularly fond of little thatchedhouses and shops, of which she has an increasingly large collection.To fund the operations of her fiefdom, she taxes the people heavily,adding to their financial burdens.

Glinda the Good Witch of the South runs her realm in a morepeople-friendly way. All of the money in the land is issued and lentby a "people's bank" operated for their benefit. She begins by creat-ing 110 people's-dollars. She lends 100 of these dollars at 10 percentinterest and spends the extra 10 dollars into the community on pro-grams designed to improve the general welfare - things such as pen-sions for retirees, social services, infrastructure, education, researchand development. The $110 circulates in the community and comesback to the people's bank as principal and interest on its loans. Glindaagain lends $100 of this money into the community and spends theother $10 on public programs, supplying the interest for the next roundof loans while providing the people with jobs and benefits.

For many years, she just recycles the same $110, without creatingnew money. Then one year, a cyclone comes up that destroys manyof the charming little thatched houses. The people ask for extra moneyto rebuild. No problem, says Glinda; she will just print more people's-dollars and use them to pay for the necessary labor and materials.Inflation is avoided, because supply increases along with demand.Best of all, taxes are unknown in the realm.

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A Practical Real-world Model

It sounds good in a fairytale, in a land with a benevolent queenand only one bank; but things are a bit different in the real world. Forone thing, enlightened benevolent queens are hard to come by. Foranother thing, returning all the interest collected on loans to thegovernment would require nationalizing not only the whole bankingsystem but every other form of private lending at interest, an alternativethat is too radical for current Western thinking. A more realistic modelwould be a dual lending system, semi-private and semi-public. Thegovernment would be the initial issuer and lender of funds, and privatefinancial institutions would recycle this money as loans. Private lenderswould still be siphoning interest into their own coffers, just not asmuch. The money supply would therefore still need to expand tocover interest charges, just not by as much. The actual amount bywhich it would need to expand and how this could be achieved withoutcreating dangerous price inflation are addressed in Chapter 44.

Interest and Islam

Instituting a system of government-owned banks may soundradical in the United States, but some countries have already done it;and some other countries are ripe for radical reform. RodneyShakespeare, author of The Modern Universal Paradigm (2007),suggests that significant monetary reform may come first in the Islamiccommunity. Islamic reformers are keenly aware of the limitations ofthe current Western system and are actively seeking change, and oil-rich Islamic countries may have the clout to pull it off.

As noted earlier, Western lenders got around the religiousproscription against "usury" (taking a fee for the use of money) byredefining the term to mean taking "excessive" interest; but Islamicpurists still hold to the older interpretation. The Islamic Republic ofIran has a state-owned central bank and has led the way in adoptingthe principles of the Koran as state government policy, includinginterest-free lending. In September 2007, Iran's President advocatedreturning to an interest-free system and appointed a new central bankgovernor who would further those objectives. The governor said thatbanks should generate income by charging fees for their services ratherthan making a profit by receiving interest on loans.2

That could be a covert factor in the persistent drumbeats for waragainst Iran, despite a December 2007 National Intelligence Estimate

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finding that the country was not developing nuclear weapons, theasserted justification for a very aggressive stance against it. We'veseen that a global web of debt spun from compound interest is key tomaintaining the "full-spectrum dominance" of the private bankingmonopoly currently controlling international markets. A paper titled"Rebuilding America's Defenses," released in September 2000 by apolitically influential neoconservative think tank called the Projectfor the New American Century, linked America's "national defense"to suppressing economic rivals. The policy goals it urged included"ensuring economic domination of the world, while strangling anypotential 'rival' or viable alternative to America's vision of a 'freemarket' economy."3 We've seen that alternative models threateningthe dominance of the prevailing financial establishment haveconsistently been targeted for takedown, either by speculative attack,economic sanctions or war.4 Iran has repeatedly been hit with economicsanctions that could strangle it economically.

How a Truly Interest-free Banking System Might Work

While the threat of a viable interest-free banking system could bea covert factor in the continual war-posturing against Iran, today thatthreat remains largely hypothetical. Islamic banks typically charge"fees" on loans that are little different from interest. A commonarrangement is to finance real estate purchases by buying propertyand selling it to clients at a higher price, to be paid in installmentsover time. Skeptical Islamic scholars maintain that these arrangementsmerely amount to interest-bearing loans by other names. They useterms such as "the usury of deception" and "the jurisprudence oflegal tricks."5

One problem for banks attempting to follow an interest-free modelis that they are normally private institutions that have to competewith other private banks, and they have little incentive to engage incommercial lending if they are taking risks without earning acorresponding profit. In Sweden and Denmark, however, interest-free savings and loan associations have been operating successfullyfor decades. These banks are cooperatively owned and are notdesigned to return a profit to their owners. They merely provide aservice, facilitating borrowing and lending among their members.Costs are covered by service charges and fees.6

Interest-free lending would be particularly feasible if it were doneby banks owned by a government with the power to create money,

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since credit could be extended without the need to make a profit orthe risk of bankruptcy from bad loans. Like in China, a governmentthat did not need to worry about carrying a $9 trillion federal debtcould afford to carry a few private bad debts on its books withoutupsetting the economy. A community or government banking serviceproviding interest-free credit would just be a credit clearing agency,an intermediary that allowed people to "monetize" their own promisesto repay. People would become sovereign issuers of their own money,not just collectively but individually, with each person determiningfor himself how much "money" he wanted to create by drawing itfrom the online service where credit transactions were recorded.

That is what actually happens today when purchases are madewith a credit card. Your signature turns the credit slip into a negotiableinstrument, which the merchant accepts because the credit cardcompany stands behind it and will pursue legal remedies if you don'tpay. But the bank doesn't actually lend you anything. It just facilitatesand guarantees the deal. (See Chapter 29.) You create the "money"yourself; and if you pay your bill in full every month, you are creatingmoney interest-free. Credit could be extended interest-free for longerperiods on the same model. To assure that advances of the nationalcredit got repaid, national banks would have the same remedies lendershave now, including foreclosure on real estate and other collateral,garnishment of wages, and the threat of a bad credit rating fordefaulters; while borrowers would still have the safety net of filing forbankruptcy if they could not pay. But they would have an easier timemeeting their obligations, since their interest-free loans would be farless onerous than the 18 percent credit card charges prevalent today.

Interest charges are incorporated into every stage of producing aproduct, from pulling raw materials out of the earth to putting thegoods on store shelves. These cumulative charges have been estimatedto compose about half the cost of everything we buy.7 That meansthat if interest charges were eliminated, prices might be slashed inhalf. Interest-free loans would be particularly appropriate for fundingstate and local infrastructure projects. (See Chapter 44.) Among otherhappy results, taxes could be reduced; infrastructure and sustainableenergy development might pay for themselves; affordable housingfor everyone would be a real possibility; and the inflation resultingfrom the spiral of ever-increasing debt might be eliminated.8

On the downside, interest-free loans could create another massivehousing bubble if not properly monitored. The current housing bubbleresulted when monthly house payments were artificially lowered to

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the point where nearly anyone could get a mortgage, regardless ofassets. This problem could be avoided by reinstating substantial down-payment and income requirements, and by shortening payout periods.A home that formerly cost $3,000 per month would still cost $3,000per month; the mortgage would just be shorter.

Another hazard of unregulated interest-free lending is that it couldproduce the sort of speculative carry trade that developed in Japanafter it made interest-free or nearly interest-free loans available to all.Investors borrowing at zero or very low interest have used the moneyto buy bonds paying higher interest, pocketing the difference; andthese trades have often been highly leveraged, hugely inflating themoney supply and magnifying risk. As the dollar has lost value relativeto the yen, investors have had to scramble to repay their yen loans inan increasingly illiquid credit market, forcing them to sell other assetsand contributing to systemic market failure. One solution to thisproblem might be a version of the "real bills" doctrine: interest-freecredit would be available only for real things traded in the economy— no speculation, investing on margin, or shorting. (See Chapter 37.)

What would prudent savers rely on for their retirement years ifinterest were eliminated from the financial scheme? As in Islamicand Old English systems, money could still be invested for a profit. Itwould just need to be done as "profit-sharing" — sharing not only inthe profits but in the losses. In a compound-interest arrangement, thelender gets his interest no matter what. In fact, he does better if theborrower fails, since the strapped borrower provides him with a steadyincome stream at higher rates of interest than otherwise. In today'smarket, profit-sharing basically means that savers would move theirmoney out of bonds and into stocks. Alternatives for taking the riskout of retirement are explored in Chapter 44.

A Financial System in Which Bankers Are Public Servants

The religious objection to charging interest is that people who havenot labored for the money take it from those who have earned it bythe sweat of their brows. This result could be avoided, however,without actually banning interest. In ancient Sumer, interest wascollected but went to the temple, which then disbursed it to thecommunity for the common good. (See Chapter 5.) A similar modelwas created by Mohammad Yunus, the Muslim professor whofounded the Grameen Bank of Bangladesh. The Grameen Bank

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charges interest, but at a significantly lower rate than would otherwisebe available to poor women lacking collateral; and the interest isreturned to the bank for their benefit as its shareholders. (See Chapter35.) That was also the system successfully employed in colonialPennsylvania, where a public land bank collected interest and returnedit to the provincial government to be used in place of taxes.

Whether loans are extended interest-free or interest is returned tothe community, community-oriented models would work best if thebanks were publicly-owned institutions that did not need to return aprofit. Today government-owned banks are associated with socialism,but they would not have raised the eyebrows of our forefathers. ThePennsylvania land bank was a provincially-owned institution thatgenerated sufficient profits to fund the local government without taxes,and in this it was quite different from the modern socialist scheme.Even the most successful modern Western democratic socialistcountries, including Sweden and Australia, do not eliminate taxes.Rather than funding their governments with profits from publicly-owned ventures, they rely on heavy taxes imposed on the private sector.Sweden developed one of the largest welfare states in Europe after1945, but it had few government-run industries.9 India was off to agood start, but it got sucked into massive foreign debts by the engineeredoil crisis of 1974 and a banker-manipulated Congress that took onunnecessary IMF debt.10 The Australian Labor Party, while holdingpublic ownership of infrastructure out as an ideal, has not had enoughpolitical power to put that ideal into practice, at least not lately. Atthe turn of the twentieth century, Australia did have a very successfulpublicly-owned bank, one of which Ben Franklin would haveapproved. Australia's Commonwealth Bank was a "people's bank"that not only issued paper money but made loans and collected intereston them. When private banks were demanding 6 percent interest,Commonwealth Bank financed the Australian government's FirstWorld War effort at an interest rate of a fraction of 1 percent. Theresult was to save Australians some $12 million in bank charges. Afterthe First World War, the bank's governor used the bank's credit powerto save Australians from the depression conditions in other countries.It financed production and home-building, and lent funds to localgovernments for the construction of roads, tramways, harbors,gasworks, and electric power plants. The bank's profits were paid tothe national government and were available for the redemption ofdebt. This prosperity lasted until the bank fell to the twentieth centuryglobal drive for privatization. At the beginning of the twentiethcentury, Australia had a standard of living that was among the highest

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in the world; but after its bank was privatized, the country fell heavilyinto debt. By the end of the century, its standard of living had droppedto twenty-third.11

New Zealand in the 1930s and 1940s also had a government-ownedcentral bank that successfully funded public projects, keeping theeconomy robust at a time when the rest of the world was languishingin depression.12 In the United States during the same period, FranklinRoosevelt reshaped the U.S. Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC)into a source of cheap and abundant credit for developing the nationalinfrastructure and putting the country back to work.13 Besides theRFC and colonial land banks, other ventures in U.S. governmentbanking have included Lincoln's Greenback system, the U.S. PostalSavings System, Frannie Mae, Freddie Mac, and the Small BusinessAdministration (SBA), which oversees loans to small businesses in aneconomic climate in which credit may be denied by private banksbecause there is not enough profit in the loans to warrant the risks.

The Myth of Government Inefficiency

A common objection to getting the government involved in businessis that it is notoriously inefficient at those pursuits; but Betty ReidMandell, author of Selling Uncle Sam, maintains that this reputationis undeserved. She says it has resulted largely because the onlyenterprises left to government are those from which private enterprisecan't make a profit. She cites surveys showing that in-house operationof publicly-provided services is generally more efficient than contractingthem out, while privatizing public infrastructure for private profit hastypically led to increased costs, inefficiency, and corruption.14 A casein point is the deregulation and privatization of electricity in California,which met with heavy criticism as an economic disaster for the state.15Complex publicly-provided services tend to break down withprivatization, just from the complexity of contracting and supervisingthe contract. Privatization of the British rail system caused rateincreases, rail accidents, and system breakdown, to the point that amajority of the British public now favors returning to governmentownership and operation. Catherine Austin Fitts concurs, drawingon her experience as Assistant Secretary of HUD. She writes:

The public policy "solution" has been to outsource governmentfunctions to make them more productive. In fact, this jump inoverhead is simply a subsidy provided to private companies andorganisations that receive thereby a guaranteed return regardless

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of performance. We have subsidies and financing to supporthousing programs that make no economic sense except for theproperty managers and owners who build and manage it forlayers of fees.16

Government services may appear to be inefficient because publicfunding is lacking to do the job properly; but this inefficiency is notthe result of a lack of motivation among government workers causedby inadequate "competition." Clerks working for the governmenthave to compete and perform to hold onto their jobs just as clerksworking for private industry do. To the clerk, there is not muchdifference whether she is working for the government or for a bigmultinational corporation. It is not "her" business. Either way, she isjust getting paid to take orders and carry them out. Beating out thecompetition by cutthroat practices is not the only way to motivateworkers. Pride of performance, a desire for promotion and highersalaries, and a belief in the team project are also effective prods. Recallthe Indian study comparing service and customer satisfaction fromprivate-sector and public-sector banks, in which the government-owned Bank of India came out on top in all areas surveyed.17

Banks that are government agencies would have a number ofpractical advantages that could actually make them more efficient inthe marketplace than their private counterparts. A governmentbanking agency could advance loans without keeping "reserves." Likein the tally system or the LETS system, it would just be advancing"credit." A truly national bank would not need to worry about goingbankrupt, and it would not need an FDIC to insure its deposits. Itcould issue loans impartially to anyone who satisfied its requirements,in the same way that the government issues driver's licenses to anyonewho qualifies now. Interest-free lending might not materialize anytime soon, but loans could be issued at an interest rate that was modestand fixed, returning reliability and predictability to borrowing. TheFederal Reserve would no longer have to tamper with interest rates tocontrol the money supply indirectly, because it would have directcontrol of the national currency at its source. A system of truly"national" banks would return to the people their most valuable asset,the right to create their own money. Like the monarchs of medievalEngland, we the people of a sovereign nation would not be dependenton loans from a cartel of private financiers. We would not need to payincome taxes, and we might not need to pay taxes at all ... .

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Chapter 43BAILOUT, BUYOUT, ORCORPORATE TAKEOVER?BEATING THE ROBBER BARONSAT THEIR OWN GAME

"Didn't you know water would be the end of me?" asked the Witch,in a wailing, despairing voice.... "In a few minutes I shall be all melted,and you will have the castle to yourself. . . . Look out - here I go!"

- The Wonderful Wizard ofOz,"The Search for the Wicked Witch"

In the happy ending to our economic fairytale, the drought ofdebt to a private banking monopoly is destroyed with the waterof a freely-flowing public money supply. Among other salubriousresults, we the people never have to pay income taxes again. That possi-bility is not just the fantasy of Utopian dreamers but is the conclusionof some respected modern financial analysts. One is Richard Russell,the investment adviser quoted earlier, whose Dow Theory Letter hasbeen in publication for nearly fifty years. In his April 2005 newsletter,Russell observed that the creation of money is a total mystery to prob-ably 99 percent of the U.S. population. Then he proceeded to unravelthe mystery in a few sentences:

To simplify, when the US government needs money, it eithercollects it in taxes or it issues bonds. These bonds are sold to theFed, and the Fed, in turn, makes book entry deposits. This "debtmoney" created out of thin air is then made available to the USgovernment. But if the US government can issue Treasury bills,notes and bonds, it can also issue currency, as it did prior to theformation of the Federal Reserve. If the US issued its own money,

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that money could cover all its expenses, and the income tax wouldn'tbe needed. So what's the objection to getting rid of the Fed andletting the US government issue its own currency? Easy, it cutsout the bankers and it eliminates the income tax.1

In a February 2005 article titled "The Death of Banking and MacroPolitics," Hans Schicht reached similar conclusions. He wrote:

If prime ministers and presidents would only be blessed withthe most basic knowledge of the perversity of banking, theywould not go onto their knees to the Central Banker and ask HisHighness for loans .... With a little bit of brains they wouldexpropriate all banking institutions .... Expropriation would bringenough money into the national treasuries for the people not to haveto pay taxes for years to come.2

"Expropriation," however, means "to deprive of property," andthat is not the American way. At least, it isn't in principle. The Rob-ber Barons routinely deprived their competitors of property, but theydid it by following accepted business practices: they purchased theproperty on the open market in a takeover bid. Their sleight of handwas in the funding used for the purchases. They had their own affili-ated banks, which could "lend" money into existence with an account-ing entries.

If the banking cartels can do it, so can the federal government.Commercial bank ownership is held as stock shares, and the sharesare listed on public stock exchanges. The government could regaincontrol of the national money supply by simply buying up some primebank stock at its fair market price. Buying out the entire bankingindustry would not be necessary, since the depository and credit needsof consumers could be served by a much smaller banking force than isprowling the capital markets right now. The recycling of funds asloans could be left to private banks and those non-bank financialinstitutions that are already serving a major portion of the loan market.Although buying out the whole industry would not be necessary, itmight be the equitable thing to do, since if the government were totake back the power to create money from the banks, bank stock couldplummet. Indeed, if commercial banks could no longer make loanswith accounting entries, the banks' shareholders would probably voteto be bought out if given the choice.

Assume for purposes of argument, then, that Congress had decidedto reclaim the whole commercial banking industry, as an assortmentof populist writers have suggested. What would that cost on the open

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market? At the end of 2004, the total book value (assets minus liabilities)of all U.S. commercial banks was reported at $850 billion.3 "Bookvalue" is what the shareholders would receive if the banks wereliquidated and the shareholders were cashed out for exactly what thebanks were worth. Shares trade on the stock market at substantiallymore than this figure, but the price is usually no more than a generoustwo times "book." Assuming that formula, around $1.7 trillion mightbe enough to purchase the whole U.S. commercial banking industry.Too much for the government to pay?

Not if it were to create the money with accounting entries, theway banks do now.

But wouldn't that be dangerously inflationary?

Not if Congress were to wait for a deflationary crisis; and we'veseen that such a crisis is now looming on the horizon. The nextcorrection in housing prices is expected to shrink the money supply byabout $2 trillion. Fed Chairman Ben Bernanke suggested in 2002 thatthe government could counteract a major deflationary crisis by simplyprinting money and buying real assets with it. (See Chapter 40.)Buying the banking industry for $1.7 trillion in new Greenbacks couldbe just what the good doctor ordered.

Bailout, Buyout, or FDIC Receivership?

The government could buy out the banks' shareholders, but itwouldn't necessarily have to. Enough bank branches to serve thepublic's needs might be picked up by the FDIC for free, just byconducting an independent audit of the big derivative banks andputting any found to be insolvent into receivership.

Recall Murray Rothbard's contention that the whole commercialbanking system is bankrupt and belongs in receivership. (Chapter34.) Banks owe depositors many times the amount of money theyhave on "reserve." They have managed to avoid a massive run on thebanks by lulling their depositors into a false sense that all is well, usingdevices such as FDIC deposit insurance and a "reserve system" thatallows banks to borrow money created out of nothing from the FederalReserve. But that bailout system is provided at taxpayer expense. Byrights, said Rothbard, the whole banking system should be put intoreceivership and the bankers should be jailed as embezzlers.

If the taxpayers were to withdraw the taxpayer-funded propsholding up a bankrupt banking system, the banks, or at least some ofthem, could soon collapse of their own weight; and the first to go

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would probably be the big derivative banks that have been called"zombie banks" - banks that are already bankrupt and are paintedwith a veneer of solvency by a team of accountants adept at "creativeaccounting." Insolvent banks are dealt with by the FDIC, which canproceed in one of three ways. It can order a payout, in which the bankis liquidated and ceases to exist. It can arrange for a purchase andassumption, in which another bank buys the failed bank and assumesits liabilities. Or it can take the bridge bank option, in which the FDICreplaces the board of directors and provides the capital to get it runningin exchange for an equity stake in the bank.4 An "equity stake" meansan ownership interest: the bank's stock becomes the property of thegovernment.

The bridge bank option was taken in 1984, when Chicago'sContinental Illinois became insolvent. Continental Illinois was thenation's seventh largest bank, and its insolvency was the largest bankfailure that had ever occurred in the United States. Ed Griffin writes:

Federal Reserve Chairman Volcker told the FDIC that itwould be unthinkable to allow the world economy to be ruinedby a bank failure of this magnitude. So, the FDIC assumed $4.5billion in bad loans and, in return for the bailout, took 80%ownership of the bank in the form of stock. In effect, the bank wasnationalized .... The United States government was now in thebanking business.

. . . Four years after the bailout of Continental Illinois, thesame play was used in the rescue of BankOklahoma, which wasa bank holding company. The FDIC pumped $130 million intoits main banking unit and took warrants for 55% ownership. . .By accepting stock in a failing bank in return for bailing it out, thegovernment had devised an ingenious way to nationalize bankswithout calling it that.5

The FDIC sold its equity interest in Continental Illinois after thebank got back on its feet in 1991, but the bank was effectivelynationalized from 1984 to 1991. Griffin decries this result as beingantithetical to capitalist notions; but as William Jennings Bryanobserved, banking is the government's business, by constitutionalmandate. The right and the duty to create the national money supplywere entrusted to Congress by the Founding Fathers. If Congress isgoing to take back the power to create money, it will have to takecontrol of the lending business, since over 97 percent of the moneysupply is now created as commercial loans.

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As Dave Lewis observed, in some sense the big banks considered"too big to fail" are already nationalized, since their survival dependson a system of taxpayer-funded bailouts. (See Chapter 34.) If tax-payer money is keeping the ship from sinking, the taxpayers are en-titled to step in and take the helm. Banking institutions supported bytaxpayer money can and should be made public institutions operatedfor the benefit of the taxpayers.

Some Choice Bank Stock Ripe for FDIC Plucking?

Continental Illinois may not be the largest U.S. bank to have beenbailed out from bankruptcy. We've seen evidence that Citibank be-came insolvent in 1989 and was quietly bailed out with the help of theFederal Reserve, and that JPMorgan Chase (JPM) followed suit in 2002.(Chapters 33 and 34.) These are the country's two largest banks, andthey are the banks that are the most perilously over-exposed in themassive derivatives bubble. Recall the 2006 report by the Office of theComptroller of the Currency, finding that 97 percent of U.S. bank-held derivatives are in the hands of just five banks; and that the firsttwo banks on the list are JPM and Citibank. According to MartinWeiss in a November 2006 newsletter:

The biggest [derivatives] player, JPMorgan Chase, is a party to$57 trillion in notional value of derivatives. Its total creditexposure adds up to $660 billion, a stunning 748% of the bank'srisk-based capital. In other words, for every dollar of its networth, JPMorgan Chase is risking $7.48 in derivatives. All itwould take is for 13.3% of its derivatives to go bad . . . andJPMorgan's capital would be wiped out, gone. . . . Citibank isn'tfar behind - with $4.24 at risk for every dollar of capital, morethan double what it was just a few years ago.6

These two banks are prime candidates for receivership, and theFDIC might not even have to wait for a massive derivatives crisis inorder to proceed. It might just need to take a close look at the banks'books. JPM and Citibank were both defendants in the Enron scandal,in which they were charged with fraudulently cooking their books tomake things look rosier than they were. To avoid judgment, theywound up paying $300 million to settle the suits; but while a settlementavoids having to admit liability, evidence in the case clearly showedfraudulent activities.7 Banks with a record of engaging in such tacticscould still be engaging in them. A penetrating look at their booksmight confirm that their complex derivatives schemes were illegal

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pyramid schemes concealing insolvency, as critics have charged. (SeeChapter 34.) If the banks are insolvent, they belong in receivership.

JPM and Citibank have many branches and an extensive creditcard system. Recall that JPM now issues the most Visas andMasterCards of any bank nationwide, and that it holds the largestshare of U.S. credit card balances. If just these two banks were acquiredby the government in receivership, they might be sufficient to servicethe depository, check clearing, and credit card needs of the citizenry.That result would also make a very satisfying ending to our story.JPM and Citibank are the money machines of the empires of Morganand Rockefeller, the Robber Barons whose henchmen plotted at JekyllIsland to impose their Federal Reserve scheme on the American people.They induced William Jennings Bryan to endorse the Federal ReserveAct by leading him to believe that it provided for a national moneysupply issued by the government rather than by private banks. Itwould only be poetic justice for these massive banking conglomeratesto become truly "national" banking institutions, serving the publicinterest at last.

Time for an Audit of the Banks and a Tax on Derivatives?

Even if the mega-banks (or some of them) are already bankrupt,we might not hear about it without an independent Congressionalaudit. John Hoefle writes, "Major financial crises are never announcedin the newspapers but are instead treated as a form of national securitysecret, so that various bailouts and market-manipulation activities canbe performed behind the scenes." The bailouts are primarily conductedby the Federal Reserve, a private corporation answerable to the privatebanks that are its real owners. Hoefle argues that Congress delegatedthe money-creating power to the Federal Reserve in violation of itsConstitutional mandate, making the Fed's activities illegal. Hemaintains:

This is not an academic question, as the Fed is actively involvedin looting the American population for the benefit of giant U.S.and global financial institutions, and the global casino. FewAmericans have any idea the extent to which the Fed and its systemreach into their pockets on a daily basis, and the extent to which theirstandard of living has been eroded by the financier-leddeindustrialization of the United States. . . . [N]ot only do we sufferfrom an inadequate infrastructure, but we have lost the benefitsof those breakthroughs which would have occurred, the

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technologies which would have been developed, had theparasites not taken over the economy. It is the failure to pushback the boundaries of science that is responsible for most of ourproblems today.8

In order to bring the largely-unreported derivatives scheme intopublic view and under public control, Hoefle favors a tax on allderivative trades. This form of tax is called a "Tobin tax," aftereconomist James Tobin, who received a Bank of Sweden Prize inEconomics in 1981. Hoefle notes that even a very modest tax of one-tenth of one percent would bring derivative trades out into the open,allowing them to be traced and regulated; and because derivativetrading is in such high volume, the tax would have the further benefitof generating significant revenue for the government.

Dean Baker of the Center for Economic and Policy Research inWashington is another advocate of a tax on derivatives. He points outthat financial transactions taxes have been successfully implementedin the past and have often raised substantial revenue. Until recently,every industrialized nation imposed taxes on trades in its stock mar-kets; and several still do. Until 1966, the United States placed a tax of0.1 percent on shares of stock when they were first issued, and a taxof 0.04 percent when they were traded. A tax of 0.003 percent is stillimposed on stock trades to finance SEC operations.9

Baker notes that the vast majority of stock trades and other finan-cial transactions are done by short term traders who hold assets forless than a year and often for less than a day. Unlike long-term stockinvestment, these trades are essentially a form of gambling. He writes,"When an investor buys a share of stock in a company that she hasresearched and holds it for ten years, this is not gambling. But whena day trader buys a stock at 2:00 P.M. and sells it at 3:00 P.M., this isgambling. Similarly, the huge bets made by hedge funds on smallchanges in interest rates or currency prices is a form of gambling."When poor and middle income people gamble, they usually engage inone of the heavily taxed forms such as buying lottery tickets or goingto the race track; but wealthier people who gamble in the stock mar-ket escape taxation. Baker argues that a tax on derivative trades wouldonly be fair, equalizing the rules of the game:

Insofar as possible, taxes should be shifted away fromproductive activity and onto unproductive activity. Inrecognition of this basic economic principle, the government. . .already taxes most forms of gambling quite heavily. For example,

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Chapter 43 - Bailout, Buyout, or Corporate Takeover?

gambling on horse races is taxed at between 3.0 and 10.0 percent.Casino gambling in the states where it is allowed is taxed atrates between 6.25 and 20.0 percent. State lotteries are taxed ata rate of close to 40 percent. Stock market trading is the onlyform of gambling that largely escapes taxation. This is doublyinefficient. The government has no reason to favor one form ofgambling over others, and it is far better economically to taxunproductive activities than productive ones.

. . . From an economic standpoint, the nation is certainly nobetter off if people do their gambling on Wall Street rather thanin Atlantic City or Las Vegas. In fact, there are reasons to believethat the nation is better off if people gamble in Las Vegas, sincegambling on Wall Street can destabilize the functioning offinancial markets. Many economists have argued thatspeculators cause the price of stocks and other assets to divergefrom their fundamental values.10

A tax on short-term trades would impose a significant tax on specu-lators while leaving long-term investors largely unaffected. Accord-ing to Baker, a tax of as little as 0.25 percent imposed on each pur-chase or sale of a share of stock, along with a comparable tax on thetransfer of other assets such as bonds, options, futures, and foreigncurrency, could easily have netted the Treasury $120 billion in 2000.By December 2007, according to the Bank for International Settlements,derivatives tallied in at $681 trillion. A tax of 0.25 percent on thatsum would have added $2.7 trillion to the government's coffers.

Solving the Derivatives Crisis

A derivatives tax might do more than just raise money for thegovernment. Hoefle maintains that it could actually kill the deriva-tives business, since even a very small tax leveraged over many tradeswould make them unprofitable. Killing the derivatives business, inturn, could propel some very big banks into bankruptcy; but the fleas'loss could be the dog's gain. The handful of banks in which 97 per-cent of U.S. bank-held derivatives are concentrated are the same banksthat are engaging in vulture capitalism, bear raids through collusiveshort selling, and a massive derivatives scheme that allows them tomanipulate markets and destroy businesses. A tax on derivatives couldexpose these corrupt practices and bring both the schemes and theculpable banks under public control.

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Chapter 44THE QUICK FIX:GOVERNMENT THAT PAYSFOR ITSELF

The strange creatures set the travelers down carefully before thegate of the City . . . and then flew swiftly away ...."That was a good ride," said the little girl."Yes, and a quick way out of our troubles," replied the Lion.

- The Wonderful Wizard ofOz,"The Winged Monkeys"

Atax on derivatives could be a useful tool, but the ideal govern-ment would be one that was self-sustaining, without imposingeither taxes or a mounting debt on its citizens. As Richard Russellobserved, if the U.S. issued its own money, that money could cover allits expenses, and taxes would not be necessary. If the Federal Reservewere made what most people think it now is - an arm of the federalgovernment - and if it had been vested with the exclusive authority tocreate the national money supply in all its forms, the government wouldhave access to enough money to spend on anything it needed orwanted. The obvious problem with that "quick fix" is that it wouldeventually produce serious inflation, unless the money were siphonedback out of the economy in some way. The questions considered inthis chapter are:

• How much new money could the government put into the economyannually without creating dangerous price inflation?

• Would that be enough to replace income taxes? How about othertaxes?

• Would it be enough to fund new and needed projects not currentlyin the federal budget, such as sustainable energy development,restoration of infrastructure, and affordable public housing?

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No More Income Taxes!

Assume that the Federal Reserve had used its new Greenback-issuing power to buy back the entire outstanding federal debt, andthat it had acquired enough bank branches (either by purchase or byFDIC takeover in receivership) to service the depository and creditneeds of the public. What impact would those alterations have on thefederal income tax burden? To explore the possibilities, we'll use U.S.data for FY 2005 (the fiscal year ending September 2005), the last yearfor which M3 was reported:

• Total individual income taxes in FY 2005 came to $927 billion.

• Taxpayers paid $352 billion in interest that year on the federaldebt. If the debt had been paid off, this interest could have beencut from the national budget, reducing the tax burden by that sum.1

• Total assets in the form of bank credit for all U.S. commercial banksin FY 2005 were reported at $7.4 trillion.2 Assuming an averagecollective interest rate on bank loans of about 5 percent,approximately 370 billion dollars were thus paid in interest thatyear. If roughly half this sum had gone to a newly-formed nationalbanking system — for loans made at the federal funds rate to privatelending institutions, interest on credit card debt, loans to smallbusinesses, and so forth — the government could have earnedaround $185 billion in interest in FY 2005.

Adding these two adjustments together, the public tax bill mighthave been reduced by around $537 billion in FY 2005. Deducting thissum from $927 billion leaves $390 billion. This is the approximatesum the government would have had to generate in new Greenbacksto eliminate federal income taxes altogether in FY 2005.

What would adding $390 billion do to the money supply andconsumer prices? In 2005, M3 was $9.7 trillion. Adding $390 billionwould have expanded M3 by only 4 percent — Milton Friedman'smodest target rate, and far less than the money supply actually grew in2006. That was the year the Fed quit reporting M3, but the figureshave been calculated privately by other sources. Economist JohnWilliams has a website called "Shadow Government Statistics," whichexposes and analyzes the flaws in current U.S. government data andreporting. He states that in July 2006, the annual growth in M3 wasover 9 percent.3 We've seen that this growth must have come from fiatmoney created as loans by the Federal Reserve and the banks.4 Thus ifnew debt-free Greenbacks had been issued by the Treasury instead,

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inflation of the money supply could actually have been reduced - from9 percent to a modest 4 percent - without cutting government programsor adding to a burgeoning federal debt.

Horn of Plenty: Avoiding Inflationby Increasing Supply and Demand Together

New Greenbacks in the sum of $390 billion dollars would havebeen enough to eliminate income taxes, but according to Keynes, thegovernment could have issued quite a bit more than that withoutdangerously inflating prices. He said that if the funds were used toput the unemployed to work making new goods and services, newcurrency could safely be added up to the point of full employmentwithout creating price inflation. The gross domestic product (GDP)would just increase by the value of the newly-made goods and services,keeping supply and demand in balance.

How much is the U.S. work force under-employed today? In thefirst half of 2006, the official unemployment rate was 4.6 percent; butcritics said the figure was low, because it included only people applyingfor unemployment benefits. It did not include those who were nolonger eligible for benefits, those who had given up, or those whoseskills and education were under-utilized - people working part-timewho wanted to work full-time, engineers working as taxi drivers,computer programmers working as store clerks, and so forth.According to Williams' "Shadow Government Statistics" website, thereal U.S. unemployment figure in early 2006 was a full 12 percent.5

The reported GDP in 2005 was $12.5 trillion. If Williams'unemployment figure is correct, $12.5 trillion represented only 88percent of the country's productive capacity in 2005. Extrapolatingupwards, 100 percent productive capacity would have generated aGDP of $14.2 trillion, or $1.7 trillion more than was actually producedin 2005. That means another $1.7 trillion in new Greenbacks could havebeen spent into the economy for productive purposes in 2005 withoutcreating significant price inflation.

What could you do with $1.7 trillion ($1,700 billion)? Accordingto a United Nations report, in 1995 a mere $80 billion added to existingresources would have been enough to cut world poverty and hungerin half, achieve universal primary education and gender equality,reduce under-five mortality by two-thirds and maternal mortality bythree-quarters, reverse the spread of HIV/ AIDS, and halve theproportion of people without access to safe water world-wide.6 For

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comparative purposes, here are some typical U.S. government outlays:$76 billion went for education in FY 2005, $26.6 billion went for naturalresources and the environment, and $69.1 billion went for veteran'sbenefits. Under our projected scenario, these and other necessaryservices could have been expanded and many others could have beenadded, while at the same time eliminating federal income taxes and thefederal debt, without creating dangerous inflation.

A Non-inflationary National Dividendor Basic Income Guarantee?

Other theorists have gone further than Keynes. Richard Cook is aretired federal analyst who served at the U.S. Treasury Departmentand now writes and lectures on monetary policy. He notes that in2006, the U.S. Gross Domestic Product came to $12.98 trillion, whilethe total national income came to only $10.23 trillion; and at least 10percent of that income was reinvested rather than spent on goodsand services. Total available purchasing power was thus only about$9.21 trillion, or $3.77 trillion less than the collective price of goodsand services sold. Where did consumers get the extra $3.77 trillion?They had to borrow it, and they borrowed it from banks that created itwith accounting entries. If the government were to replace this bank-created money with debt-free Greenbacks, the total money supplywould remain unchanged. That means a whopping $3.77 trillion innew government-issued money might be fed into the economy withoutincreasing the inflation rate.7

This opens another rainbow-hued dimension of possibilities. Whatcould the government do with $3.77 trillion? In a 1924 book calledSocial Credit, C. H. Douglas suggested that government-issued moneycould be used to pay a guaranteed basic income for all. Richard Cookproposes a national dividend of $10,000 per adult and $5,000 perdependent child annually.8 The U.S. population was about 303 millionin 2007, of whom 27.4 percent were under age 20. That works out to$2,200 billion for adults and $415 billion for children, or $2,615 billion($2,615 trillion) to provide a basic security blanket for everyone. If$3.77 trillion in Greenback dollars were issued to fill the gap betweenGDP and purchasing power, and $2,615 trillion of this money weredistributed among the population, the government would still have $1.55trillion left over — ample to satisfy its budgetary needs.

The concept of a national dividend is interesting but controversial.On the one hand, the result could be a class of drones willing to live atsubsistence level to avoid work. On the other hand, a national

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dividend would be a boon to artists and inventors willing to livefrugally in order to explore their art. During the culturally richRenaissance, art, literature and science were furthered by a leisureclass favored by inheritance. A national dividend would give thatbirthright to all. Meanwhile, most people desire a lifestyle beyondmere subsistence and would no doubt be willing to pursue productiveemployment to acquire it.

Another proposal favored by a number of economists is a basicincome guarantee, a sum of money sufficient to assure that no citizen'sincome falls below some minimum level. The difference, says Cook, isthat a national dividend would be tied to national production andconsumption data and might vary from year to year. A guaranteedminimum income would be a fixed figure, paid without complicatedpaperwork or qualifying tests.

However Congress decides to spend the money, the importantpoint here is that the government might be able to issue and spend asmuch as $3.77 trillion into the economy without creatinghyperinflation — perhaps not all at once, but at least over time. Themoney would merely make up for the shortfall between GDP andpurchasing power, gradually replacing the debt-money created asloans by private banks. As unemployed and under-employed peopleacquired incomes they could live on, they would no longer need totake out loans at exorbitant interest rates to pay their bills. Homebuyers with money to spare would pay down their mortgages, andfewer "sub-prime" borrowers would be induced to acquire new debt,since aggressive lending tactics would have disappeared along withthe fractional reserve banking system that made them profitable.Meanwhile, a tax imposed on derivatives could put a brake on theexploding derivatives bubble and its accompanying debt burden; andif the big derivative banks were put into FDIC receivership, thederivative Ponzi scheme might be carefully unwound, liquidating largeamounts of "virtual" debt with it. As these sources of debt-moneyshrank, there would be increasing room for expanding the moneysupply by funding public projects with newly-issued Greenbacks.

A Solution to the Housing Crisis?

Among other possible uses for this $3.77 trillion in new-foundcapital might be to salvage the distressed housing market. Estimatesare that the current subprime debacle and ARM resets could throwmortgages valued at $1 trillion into default, either because the

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borrowers can't afford the payments or because they have no incentiveto keep paying on homes worth less than is owed on them.9 Oneproposed solution is to slow foreclosures by imposing a freeze oninterest rates, keeping ARM rates from going higher. But that wouldviolate the "sanctity of contracts," forcing unwary buyers of mortgage-backed securities to bear the loss on investments that had been stamped"triple-A" by bank-funded rating agencies. By rights, the banksdevising these dubious investment vehicles to get loans off their booksshould be held liable; but the banks are already in serious financialtrouble and would be hard-pressed to find an extra trillion tocompensate the victims. If the securities holders sue the banks forrestitution, even the hardiest banks could go bankrupt.10

Where, then, can a deep pocket be found to set things right? Todaythe world's central banks are extending billions of dollars in computer-generated money to bail out their cronies, but these loans are justbuying time, without restoring homeowners to their homes orpreventing abandoned neighborhoods from deteriorating.11 So who isleft to save the day? If Congress were to issue $3.77 trillion to fill thegap between purchasing power and GDP, it could use one quarter ofthis money to buy defaulting mortgages from MBS holders, and itwould still have plenty left over to meet its budget without levyingincome taxes. Adding a potential $1.7 trillion or more from a tax onderivatives would provide ample money for other programs as well.After reimbursing the defrauded MBS holders, Congress could disposeof the distressed properties however it deemed fair. To avoid eithergiving defaulting homeowners a windfall or turning them out intothe streets, one possibility might be to rent the homes to their currentoccupants at affordable prices, at least until some other equitablesolution could be found. The rents could then be cycled back to thegovernment, helping to drain excess liquidity from the money supply.

How to Keep the Economic Bathtub from Overflowing

That segues into another way of viewing the inflation problem:the government could create all the new money it needed or wanted,if it had ways to drain the economic bathtub by recycling the fundsback to itself. Instead of issuing new money the next time around, itcould just spend these recycled funds, keeping the money supply stable.The usual way to draw money back to the Treasury is through taxes.Indeed, it has been argued that governments must tax in order tosiphon excess money out of the system. But the Pennsylvania

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experience showed that inflation would not result if the governmentlent new money into the economy, since the money would be drawnback out when the debt was repaid; and new money spent into theeconomy could be recycled back to the government in the form ofinterest due on loans and fees for other public services.

A more equitable and satisfying solution than taxing the peoplewould be for the government to invest in productive industries thatreturned income to the public purse. Affordable public housing thatgenerated rents would be one possibility. The development ofsustainable energy solutions (wind, solar, ocean wave, geothermal)are other obvious examples. Unlike scarce oil resources that are non-renewable and come from a plot of ground someone owns, these naturalforces are inexhaustible and belong to everyone; and once the necessaryinfrastructure is set up, no further investment is necessary beyondmaintenance to keep these energy generators going. They are perpetualmotion machines, powered by the moon, the tides and the weather.Wind farms could be set up on publicly-owned lands across thecountry. Denmark, the leading wind power nation in the world, todaysatisfies 20 percent of its electricity needs with clean energy producedat Danish wind farms. Wave energy can average 65 megawatts permile of coastline in favorable locations, and the West Coast of theUnited States is more than 1,000 miles long. The government couldcharge a reasonable fee to users for this harnessed energy.

Those are all possibilities for recycling excess liquidity out of theeconomy, but today the focus is on getting liquidity into the financialsystem. Major deflationary forces are now threatening to shrink themoney supply into a major depression, unless the federal governmentturns on the liquidity spigots and pumps new money in. We've seenthat the money supply could contract by $1.7 trillion or more justfrom the next correction in the housing market; and when thederivatives bubble collapses, substantially more debt-money willdisappear. The Federal Reserve reports that the fastest-growing portionof the U.S. debt burden is in the "financial sector" (meaning mainlythe banking sector), which was responsible in 2005 for $12.5 trillion indebt. This explosive growth is attributed largely to speculation inderivatives, which are highly leveraged. The buyer of a derivativemight, for example, put up 5 percent while a bank loan provides therest. The debt ratio of the financial sector zoomed from a mere 5 percentof the economy's national income in 1957 to 126 percent in 2005, agrowth rate 23 times greater than general economic growth.12 In 2006,only 5 major U.S. banks held 97 percent of derivatives, including the"zombie" banks that were already bankrupt and were being propped

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up by manipulative market intervention. The whole edifice is built onsand; and when it collapses, the masses of debt-money it created willvanish with it in the waves, massively deflating the money supply,leaving plenty of room for the government to add money back in.

A Helping Hand to State and Local Governments

In the interest of preserving a single national currency, state andlocal governments would not be able to issue new Greenbacks to fundtheir programs (although they could issue other forms of credit, suchas tax credits for fuel efficiency; see Chapter 36). However, the federalgovernment could extend its largesse to state and local governmentsby offering them interest-free loans for worthy projects. That is whatJacob Coxey proposed when he took to the streets in the 1890s: "non-interest-bearing bonds" to fund local public projects, to be issued bythe local government and pledged to the federal government inexchange for federally-issued Greenback dollars.

In the 1990s, citizen activist Ken Bohnsack took to the streets again,traveling the country for a decade recruiting scores of public bodies topass resolutions asking Congress for "sovereignty loan" legislation thatechoed Coxey's plan. Under Bohnsack's proposed bill, the govern-ment would use its sovereign right to create money to make interest-free loans to local governments for badly needed infrastructure projects.The legislation was not passed, but Bohnsack, unlike Coxey, at leastgot up the Capitol steps and in the door. In 1999, his proposal becamethe State and Local Government Empowerment Act, introduced byRepresentative Ray LaHood and co-sponsored by Dennis Kucinichand Barbara Lee among others.13

Similar proposals for using interest-free national credit to fundinfrastructure and sustainable energy development are being urgedby a variety of money reform groups around the world, including theNew Zealand Democratic Party for Social Credit, the Canadian ActionParty, the Bromsgrove Group in Scotland, the Forum for StableCurrencies in England, the London Global Table, and the AmericanMonetary Institute.14 Reform advocates note that more money is oftenpaid in interest for local projects than for labor and materials, makingpublic projects unprofitable that might otherwise have paid forthemselves. In The Modern Universal Paradigm, Rodney Shakespearegives the example of the Humber Bridge, which was built in the UKat a cost of £98 million. Every year since the bridge opened in 1981, it

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has turned an operating profit; that is, its running costs (basicallyrepair, maintenance and staff salaries) have been exceeded by thefees it receives from travelers crossing the River Humber. But by thetime the bridge opened in 1981, interest charges had driven its costup to £151 million; and by 1992, the debt had shot up to an alarming£439 million. The UK government was forced to intervene withsizeable grants and writeoffs to save the local residents from bearingthe brunt of these costs. If the bridge had been financed with interest-free government-issued money, interest charges could have beenavoided, and the bridge could have funded itself.15

State and local governments are good credit risks and do not needthe prod of interest charges to encourage them to make timely paymentson their loans. To discourage local officials from borrowing "free"money just to speculate with it, the "real bills" doctrine could beapplied: expenditures could only be for real goods and services — nospeculative betting, no investing on margin, no shorting. (See Chapter37.) A strict repayment schedule could also be imposed.

How would these loans be repaid? The money could come fromtaxes; but again, a more satisfying solution is for local governments toraise revenue through fee-generating enterprises of various types, turn-ing local economies into the sort cooperative profit-generating endeavorsimplied in the term "Common Wealth."

A National Dividend from Government Investments?

The government may be a profit-generating enterprise already.So says Walter Burien, an investment adviser and accountant whohas spent many years peering into government books. He notes thatthe government is composed of 54,000 different state, county, andlocal government entities, including school districts, public authorities,and the like; and that all of them keep their financial assets in liquidinvestment funds, bond financing accounts and corporate stockportfolios. The only income that must be reported in governmentbudgets is that from taxes, fines and fees; but the stock holdings ofgovernment entities can be found in official annual reports known asCAFRs (Comprehensive Annual Financial Reports) which must befiled with the federal government by local, county and stategovernments. According to Burien, these annual reports show thatvirtually every U.S. city, county, and state has vast amounts of moneystashed away in surplus funds, with domestic and international stock

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holdings collectively totaling trillions of dollars.16

Some of these stock holdings are pure surplus held as "slush funds"(funds raised for undesignated purposes). Others belong to city andcounty employees as their pension funds. Unlike the federal SocialSecurity fund, which must be invested in U.S. government securities,the funds in state and local government pension programs can beinvested in anything - common stock, bonds, real estate, derivatives,commodities. Where Social Security depends on taxing futuregenerations, state and local retirement systems can invest in assetsthat are income-producing, making them self-sufficient. The slushfunds that represent "pure surplus," says Burien, have been keptconcealed from taxpayers, even as taxes are being raised and citizensare being told to expect fewer government services. He maintainsthat with prudent government management, not only could taxes beabolished but citizens could start receiving dividend checks. This isalready happening in Alaska, where oil investments have allowed thestate to give rebates to taxpayers (around $2,000 per person in 2000).17

Burien's thesis is controversial and would take some seriousinvestigation to be substantiated, but combined with allegations byCatherine Austin Fitts and others that trillions of dollars have simplybeen "lost" to "black ops" programs, it raises tantalizing possibilities.The government may be far richer than we know. An honestgovernment truly intent on providing for the general welfare mightfind the funds for all sorts of programs that are sorely needed buttoday are considered beyond the government's budget, includingimproved education, environmental preservation, universal healthcoverage, restoration of infrastructure, independent medical research,and alternative energy development. Roger Langrick concludes:

With computerization, robotics, advances in genetics and foodgrowing, we have the potential to turn the planet into a sustainableecosystem capable of supporting all. . . . This is not a time to besaddled with an 18th century money system designed around theendless rape of the planet, [one] based on the robber baronmentality and flawed with Unrepayable Debt. ... A new monetarysystem with enough government control to ensure funding of vital issuescould unlock the creative potential of the entire nation.18

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Chapter 45GOVERNMENT WITH HEART:SOLVING THE PROBLEM OF THIRDWORLD DEBT

"Remember, my fine friend, a heart is not judged by how much youlove, but by how much you are loved by others."

- The Wizard ofOz to the Tin Woodman, MGMfilm

In the nineteenth century, the corporation was given thelegal status of a "person" although it was a person without heart,incapable of love and charity. Its sole legal motive was to make moneyfor its stockholders, ignoring such "external" costs as environmentaldestruction and human oppression. The U.S. government, by con-trast, was designed to be a social organism with heart. The FoundingFathers stated as their guiding principles that all men are created equal;that they are endowed with certain inalienable rights, including life,liberty and the pursuit of happiness; and that the function of govern-ment is to "provide for the general welfare."

If the major corporate banking entities that are now in control ofthe nation's money supply were made agencies of the U.S. govern-ment, they could incorporate some of these humanitarian standardsinto their business models; and one important humanitarian step thesepublic banks would be empowered to take would be to forgive unfairand extortionate Third World debt. Most Third World debt today isheld by U.S.-based international banks.1 If those banks were madefederal agencies (either by purchasing their stock or by acquiring themin receivership), the U.S. government could declare a "Day of Jubilee"— a day when oppressive Third World debts were forgiven across theboard. The term comes from the Biblical Book of Leviticus, in which

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Jehovah Himself, evidently recognizing the mathematical impossibil-ity of continually collecting debts at interest compounded annually,declared a day to be held every 49 years, when debts would be for-given and the dispossessed could return to their homes.

Unlike when Jehovah did it, however, a Day of Jubilee declared bythe U.S. government would not be an entirely selfless act. If the UnitedStates is going to pay off its international debts with new Greenbacks,it is going to need the goodwill of the world. Forgiving the debts ofour neighbors could encourage them to forgive ours. Other countrieshave no more interest in seeing the international economy collapsethan we do; but if they are "spooked" by the market, they could rushto dump their dollars along with everyone else, bringing the wholeshaky debt edifice down. Forgiving Third World debt could show ourgood intentions, quell market jitters, and get everyone on the samepage. Our shiny new monetary scheme, rather than appearing to bemore sleight of hand, could unveil itself as a millennial model for show-ering abundance everywhere.

Forgiving Third World debt could have a number of other impor-tant benefits, including a reduction in terrorism. In a 2004 book calledThe Debt Threat: How Debt Is Destroying the Developing World andThreatening Us All, Noreena Hertz notes that "career terrorists" aresigning up for that radical employment because it pays a salary whenno other jobs are available. Relieving Third World debt would alsohelp protect the global environment, which is being destroyed pieceby piece to pay off international lenders; and it could help prevent thespread of diseases that are being bred in impoverished conditionsabroad.

The United States has actually been looking for a way to cancelThird World debt. It just hasn't been able to reach agreement with itsfellow IMF members on how to do it. When the IMF talks of "forgiving"debt, it isn't talking about any acts of magnanimous generosity on thepart of the banks. It is talking about shifting the burden of paymentfrom the debtor countries to the wealthier donor countries, or drawingon the IMF's gold reserves to insure that the banks get their money. Inthe fall of 2004, the United States decided that Iraq's $120 billion debtshould be canceled; but if oil-rich Iraq merited debt cancellation, muchpoorer countries would too. Under the Heavily Indebted Poor Country(HIPC) Initiative of 1996, rich nations agreed to cancel $110 billion indebt to poor nations; but by the fall of 2004, only about $31 billion hadactually been canceled. The thirty or so poorest nations, most of themin Africa, still had a collective outstanding debt of about $200 billion.

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At a meeting of finance ministers, the United States took the positionthat the debts of all the poorest nations should be canceled outright.The sticking point was where to get the funds. One suggestion was torevalue and sell the IMF's gold; but objection was raised that this wouldsimply be another form of welfare to banks that had made risky loans,encouraging them to continue in their profligate loan-sharking.2

The Wizard of Oz might have said this was another instance ofdisorganized thinking. The problem could be solved in the same waythat it was created: by sleight of hand. The debts could be canceledsimply by voiding them out on the banks' books. No depositors orcreditors would lose any money, because no depositors or creditorsadvanced their own money in the original loans. According to Britisheconomist Michael Rowbotham, writing in 1998:

[0]f the $2,200 billion currently outstanding as Third World,or developing country debt, the vast majority represents moneycreated by commercial banks in parallel with debt. In no sensedo the loans advanced by the World Bank and IMF constitutemonies owed to the "creditor nations" of the World Bank andIMF. The World Bank co-operates directly with commercialbanks in the creation and supply of money in parallel with debt.The IMF also negotiates directly with commercial banks toarrange combined IMF/commercial "loan packages."

As for those sums loaned by the IMF from the total quotassupplied by member nations, these sums also do not constitutemonies owed to "creditor" nations. The monies subscribed asquotas were initially created by commercial banks. Both quotasand loans are owed, ultimately, to commercial banks.

If the money is owed to commercial banks, it was money createdwith accounting entries. Rowbotham observes that Third World debtrepresents a liability on the banks' books only because the rules ofbanking say their books must be balanced. He suggests two ways therules of banking might be changed to liquidate unfair and oppressivedebts:

The first option is to remove the obligation on banks tomaintain parity between assets and liabilities, or, to be moreprecise, to allow banks to hold reduced levels of assets equivalentto the Third World debt bonds they cancel. Thus, if a commercialbank held $10 billion worth of developing country debt bonds,after cancellation it would be permitted in perpetuity to have a

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$10 billion dollar deficit in its assets. This is a simple matter ofrecord-keeping.

The second option, and in accountancy terms probably themore satisfactory (although it amounts to the same policy), is tocancel the debt bonds, yet permit banks to retain them forpurposes of accountancy. The debts would be cancelled so faras the developing nations were concerned, but still valid for thepurposes of a bank's accounts. The bonds would then be heldas permanent, non-negotiable assets, at face value.3

Third World debt could be eliminated with the click of a mouse!

Stabilizing Exchange Ratesin a Floating Sea of Trade

Old debts can be wiped off the books, but the same debt syndromewill strike again unless something is done to stabilize nationalcurrencies. As long as currencies can be devalued by speculators,Third World countries will be exporting goods for a fraction of theirvalue and over-paying for imports, keeping them impoverished. TheU.S. dollar itself could soon be at risk. If global bondholders startdumping their bond holdings in large quantities, short sellers couldfan the flames, collapsing the value of the dollar just as speculatorscollapsed the German mark in 1923.

To counteract commercial risks from sudden changes in the valueof foreign currencies, corporations today feel compelled to investheavily in derivatives, "hedging" their bets so they can win either way.But derivatives themselves are quite risky and expensive, and theycan serve to compound the risk. Some other solution is needed thatcan return predictability, certainty and fairness to international con-tracts. The Bretton Woods gold standard worked to prevent devalua-tions and huge trade deficits like the United States now has with China,but gold ultimately failed as a currency peg. The U.S. government(the global banker) had insufficient gold reserves for clearing interna-tional trade balances, and it eventually ran out of gold. Gold alonehas also proved to be an unstable measure of value, since its ownvalue fluctuates widely. Some new system is needed that retains thevirtues of the gold standard while overcoming its limitations.

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From the Dollar Peg to "Full Dollarization"?

One solution that has been tried is for countries to stabilize theircurrencies by pegging them directly to the U.S. dollar. The maneuverhas worked to prevent currency devaluations, but the countries havelost the flexibility they needed to compete in international markets. InArgentina between 1991 and 2001, a "currency board" maintained astrict one-to-one peg between the Argentine peso and the U.S. dollar.The money supply was fixed, limited and inflexible. The dire resultwas national bankruptcy, in 1995 and again in 2001.4

In the extreme form of dollar pegging, called "full dollarization,"the fully dollarized country simply abandons its local currency anduses only U.S. dollars. Ecuador converted to full dollarization in 2000,and El Salvador did it in 2002.5 Certain benefits were realized, in-cluding reduced interest rates, reduced inflation, a stable currency,and a measure of economic growth. But when neighboring countriesdevalued their own currencies, the "dollarized" countries' productsbecame more expensive and less competitive in global markets.Dollarized countries also lost the ability to control their own moneysupplies. When the El Salvador government incurred unexpected ex-penses, it could not finance them either by issuing its own currency orby issuing bonds that would be funded by its own banks, since neitherthe government nor the bankers had the ability to create dollars. Thecountry's money supply was fixed and limited, forcing the govern-ment to cut budgeted programs to make up the difference; and thatseriously hurt the poor, since welfare programs got slashed first.

The Single Currency Solution

Another proposed solution to the floating currency conundrum isfor the world to convert en masse to a single currency. Proponents saythis would do on a global level what the standardized dollar bill didon a national level for the United States, and what the Euro did on aregional level for the European Union. But critics point out that theworld is not one nation or one region, and they question who wouldbe authorized to issue this single currency. If all governments couldissue it at will, the global money supply would be vulnerable toirresponsible governments that issued too much. If, on the other hand,the global currency could be issued only by a global central bank onthe model of the IMF, the result would be the equivalent of "full

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dollarization" for the world. Countries would not be able to issuetheir own currencies or draw on their own credit when they needed itfor internal purposes. As in El Salvador, whenever they had crisesthat put unusual demands on the national budget, they would nothave the option of generating new money to meet those demands.They would be forced to tighten their belts and pursue "austeritymeasures" or to borrow from the world central bank, with all theglobalization hazards those compound-interest loans entail.

There is, however, a third possibility. Rather than having toborrow the global fiat currency from a central bank at interest, nationsmight be authorized to draw on this credit interest-free. In effect, theywould just be monetizing their own credit. We've seen that what hasdriven the Third World into inescapable debt is the compound-interesttrap. Interest charges are estimated to compose about half the cost ofeverything produced. If interest to financial middlemen wereeliminated, loans would merely be advances against future production,which could be repaid from that production. Borrowing nations wouldhave to repay the money on a regular payment schedule, just as theydo now; and they could not borrow more after a certain ceiling hadbeen reached until old debts had been repaid. But without the burdenof compound interest, they should be able to repay their loans fromthe goods and services produced — rents from housing, fees chargedfor publicly-developed energy and transportation, and so forth.5 Ifthey could not repay their loans, they could seek adjustments fromthe World Parliament; but decisions concerning when and how muchto increase the national money supply with interest-free credit wouldotherwise be their own. That sort of model has been proposed by anorganization called the World Constitution and ParliamentAssociation, which postulates an Earth Federation working for equalprosperity and well-being for all Earth's citizens. The global fundingbody would be authorized not only to advance credit to nations butto issue money directly, on the model of Lincoln's Greenbacks and theIMF's SDRs. These funds would then be disbursed as needed for theCommon Wealth of Earth.6

Some such radical overhaul might be possible in the future; but inthe meantime, global trade is conducted in many competing currencies,which are vulnerable to speculative attack by pirates prowling in asea of floating exchange rates. That risk needs to be eliminated. Buthow?

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Chapter 46BUILDING A BRIDGE:TOWARD A NEW BRETTON WOODS

[Sjuddenly they came to another gulf across the road. . . . [T]heysat down to consider what they should do, and after serious thought theScarecrow said, "Here is a great tree, standing close to the ditch. If theTin Woodman can chop it down, so that it will fall to the other side, wecan walk across it easily."

"That is a first-rate idea," said the Lion. "One would almostsuspect you had brains in your head, instead of straw."

- The Wonderful Wizard ofOz,"The journey to the Great Oz"

In his 1911 book The Purchasing Power of Money, Irving Fisherwrote that for money to serve as a unit of account, a trusted mediumof exchange, and a reliable store of value, its purchasing power needsto be stable. But substances existing by the bounty of nature, such asgold or silver, cannot have that property because their values fluctuatewith changing supply and demand. To avoid the disastrousdevaluations caused by international currency speculation,governments need a single stable peg against which they can valuetheir currencies, some independent measure in which merchants cannegotiate their contracts and be sure of getting what they bargainedfor. Gold, the historical peg, was an imperfect solution, not onlybecause the value of gold fluctuated widely but because gold alsotraded as a currency, and the "global banker" (the United States)eventually ran out. Some unit of value is needed that can stand as alighthouse, resisting currency movements because it is independentof them. But what? The relationship between feet and meters can befixed because the ground on which they are measured is solid, but

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world trade ebbs and flows in a moving sea of currency values.

A solution devised in the experimental cauldron of eighteenth cen-tury America was to measure the value of a paper currency against avariety of goods. During the American Revolution, troops were oftenpaid with Continentals, which quickly depreciated as the economywas flooded with them. Meanwhile, goods were becoming scarce,causing prices to shoot up. By the time the Continental soldiers camehome from a long campaign, the money in which they had been paidwas nearly worthless. To ease the situation, the Massachusetts Baylegislature authorized the state to trade the Continentals for treasurycertificates valued in terms of the sale price of staple commodities.The certificates provided that soldiers were to be paid "in the thencurrent Money of the said State, in a greater or less Sum, according asFive Bushels of CORN, Sixty-eight Pounds and four-sevenths Parts ofa Pound of BEEF, Ten Pounds of SHEEPS WOOL, and Sixteen Poundsof SOLE LEATHER shall then cost, more or less than One Hundredand Thirty Pounds current Money, at the then current Prices of saidArticles."1

Nearly two centuries later, John Maynard Keynes had a similaridea. Instead of pegging currencies to the price of a single preciousmetal (gold), they could be pegged to a "basket" of commodities: wheat,oil, copper, and so forth. Keynes did not elaborate much on this solu-tion, perhaps because the world economy was not then troubled bywild currency devaluations, and because the daily statistical calcula-tions would have been hard to make in the 1940s. But that would notbe a problem now. As Michael Rowbotham observes, "With today'ssophisticated trading data, we could, literally, have a register of allglobally traded commodities used to determine currency values."Rowbotham calls Keynes' proposal a profound and democratic ideathat is vital to any future sustainable and just world economy. Hewrites:

Today, wheat grown in one country may, due to a devaluedcurrency, cost a fraction of wheat grown in another. This leadsto the country in which wheat is cheaper becoming a heavyexporter - regardless of need, or the capacity to produce betterquality wheat in other locations. In addition, currency valuescan change dramatically and the situation can reverse. Critically,such wheat "prices" bear no relation to genuine comparativeadvantage of climate, soil type, geography and even less toindigenous/local/regional needs. Neither does it have any

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stabilising element that would promote a long-term stability ofproduction with relation to need. . . . [B]y imputing value to anation's produce, and allowing this to determine the value of anation's currency, one is imputing value to its resources, itslabourers and acknowledging its own needs.2

An international trade unit could be established that consisted ofthe value of a basket of commodities broad enough to be representativeof national products and prices and to withstand the manipulationsof speculators. This unit would include the price of gold and othercommodities, but it would not actually be gold or any other commodity,and it would not be a currency. It would just be a yardstick for peggingcurrencies and negotiating contracts. A global unit for pegging valuewould allow currencies to be exchanged across national borders atexact conversion rates, just as miles can be exactly converted intokilometers, and watches can be precisely set when crossinginternational date lines. Exchange rates would not be fixed forever,but they would be fixed everywhere. Changes in exchange rates wouldreflect the national market for real goods and services, not theinternational market for currencies. Like in the Bretton Woods systemthat pegged currencies to gold, there would be no room for speculation orhedging. But the peg would be more stable than in the Bretton Woodssystem; and because it would not trade as a currency itself, it wouldnot be in danger of becoming scarce.

Private Basket-of-Commodities Models

To implement such a standard globally would take another roundof Bretton Woods negotiations, which might not happen any time soon;but private exchange systems have been devised on the same model,which are instructive in the meantime for understanding how such asystem might work.

Community currency advocate Tom Greco has designed a "creditclearing exchange" that expands on the LETS system. It involves anexchange of credits tallied on a computer, without resorting to physi-cal money at all. Values are computed using a market basket stan-dard. The system is designed to provide merchants with a means ofnegotiating contracts privately in international trade units, which aremeasured against a basket of commodities rather than in particularcurrencies. Greco writes:

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The use of a market basket standard rather than a singlecommodity standard has two major advantages. First, itprovides a more stable measure of value since fluctuation in themarket price of any single commodity is likely to be greater thanthe fluctuation in the average price of a group of commodities.The transitory effects of weather and other factors affectingproduction and prices of individual commodities tend to averageout. Secondly, the use of many commodities makes it moredifficult for any trader or political entity to manipulate the valuestandard for his or her own advantage.3

In determining what commodities should be included in the basket,Greco suggests the following criteria. They should be (1) traded inseveral relatively free markets, (2) traded in relatively high volume, (3)important in satisfying basic human needs, (4) relatively stable in priceover time, and (5) uniform in quality or subject to quality standards.Merchants using the credit clearing exchange could agree to acceptpayment in a national currency, but the amount due would dependon the currency's value in relation to this commodity-based unit ofaccount. Once the unit had been established, the value of any currencycould be determined in relation to it, and exchange rates could beregularly computed and published for the benefit of traders.

Bernard Lietaer has proposed a commodity-based currency thathe calls "New Currency," which could be initiated unilaterally by aprivate central bank without the need for new international agree-ments. The currency would be issued by the bank and backed by abasket of from three to a dozen different commodities for which thereare existing international commodity markets. For example, 100 NewCurrency could be worth 0.05 ounces of gold, plus 3 ounces of silver,plus 15 pounds of copper, plus 1 barrel of oil, plus 5 pounds of wool.Since international commodity exchanges already exist for those re-sources, the New Currency would be automatically convertible to othernational currencies.4 Lietaer has also proposed an exchange systembased on a basket-of-commodities standard that could be used pri-vately by merchants without resorting to banks. Called the TradeReference Currency (TRC), it involves the actual acquisition of com-modities by an intermediary organization. The details are found onthe TRC website at www.terratrc.org.

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Valuing Currencies Against the Consumer Price Index

Money reform advocate Frederick Mann, author of The EconomicRape of America, had another novel idea. In a 1998 article, hesuggested that a private unit of exchange could be valued against eithera designated basket of commodities or the Commodity Research BureauIndex (CRB) or the Consumer Price Index (CPI). Using standardizedprice indices would make the unit particularly easy to calculate, sincethe figures for those indices are regularly reported around the world.

Mann called his currency unit the "Riegel," after E. C. Riegel, whowrote on the subject in the first half of the twentieth century. For the"basket" option, Mann proposed using cattle, cocoa, coffee, copper,corn, cotton, heating oil, hogs, lumber, natural gas, crude oil, orangejuice, palladium, rough rice, silver, soybeans, soybean meal, soybeanoil, sugar, unleaded gas, and wheat, in proportions that worked outto about $1 million in American money. This figure would be dividedby 1 million to get 1 Riegel, making the Riegel worth about $1 in Ameri-can money.

Another option would be to use the Commodity Research BureauIndex, which includes gold along with other commodities. But Mannnoted that the CRB would give an unrealistic picture of typical prices,because individuals don't buy those commodities on a daily basis. Abetter alternative, he said, was the Consumer Price Index, which tal-lies the prices of things routinely bought by a typical family. In theUnited States, CPI figures are prepared monthly by the U.S. Bureau ofLabor Statistics. Prices used to calculate the index are collected in 87urban areas throughout the country and include price data from ap-proximately 23,000 retail and service establishments, and data on rentsfrom about 50,000 landlords and tenants.

When Mann was writing in 1998, the CPI was about $160. Hesuggested designating 1 Riegel as the CPI divided by 160, which wouldhave again made it about $1 in 1998 prices.5 Converting the cost ofone Riegel's worth of goods in American dollars to the cost of thosegoods in other currencies would then be a simple mathematicalproposition. The CPI's "core rate," which is used to track inflation,currently excludes goods with high price volatility, including food,energy, and the costs of owning rather than renting a home.6 But tobe a fair representation of the consumer value of a currency at anyparticular time, those essential costs would need to be factored in aswell.

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A New Bretton Woods?

These proposals involve private international currency exchanges,but the same sort of reference unit could be used to stabilize exchangerates among official national currencies. Several innovators haveproposed solutions to the exchange rate problem along these lines.Besides Michael Rowbotham in England, they include LyndonLaRouche in the United States and Dr. Mahathir Mohamad inMalaysia, two political figures who are controversial in the West butare influential internationally and have some interesting ideas.

LaRouche shares the label "perennial candidate" with Jacob Coxey,having run for U.S. President eight times. He also shares a number ofideas with Coxey, including the proposal to make cheap national creditavailable for putting the unemployed to work developing national in-frastructure. LaRouche has launched an appeal for a new BrettonWoods Conference to reorganize the world's financial system, a planhe says is endorsed by many international leaders. It would call for:

1. A new system of fixed exchange rates,

2. A treaty between governments to ban speculation in derivatives,

3. The cancellation or reorganization of international debt, and

4. The issuance of "credit" by national governments in sufficient quan-

tity to bring their economies up to full employment, to be used fortechnical innovation and to develop critical infrastructure.7La Rouche's proposed system of exchange rates would be basedon an international unit of account pegged against the price of anagreed-upon basket of hard commodities. With such a system, hesays, it would be "the currencies, not the commodities, [which are]given implicitly adjusted values, as based upon the basket of com-modities used to define the unit."8

Dr. Mahathir is the outspoken Malaysian prime minister creditedwith sidestepping the "Asian crisis" that brought down the economiesof his country's neighbors. (See Chapter 26.) The Middle Easternnews outlet Al Tazeera describes him as a visionary in the Islamicworld, who has proven to be ahead of his time.9 As noted earlier,Islamic movements for monetary reform are of particular interest todaybecause oil-rich Islamic countries are actively seeking alternatives formaintaining their currency reserves, and they may be the first to breakaway from the global bankers' private money scheme. In internationalconferences and forums, Islamic scholars have been vigorously debating

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monetary alternatives.

In 2002, Dr. Mahathir hosted a two-day seminar called "The GoldDinar in Multilateral Trade," in which he expounded on the GoldDinar as an alternative to the U.S. dollar for clearing trade balances.Islamic proposals for monetary reform have generally involved a returnto gold as the only "sound" currency, but Dr. Mahathir stressed thathe was not advocating a return to the "gold standard," in which papermoney could be exchanged for its equivalent in gold on demand.Rather, he was proposing a system in which only trade deficits wouldbe settled in gold. A British website called "Tax Free Gold" explainsthe proposed Gold Dinar system like this:

It is not intended that there should be an actual gold dinar coin,or that it should be used in everyday transactions; the gold dinarwould be an international unit of account for international settlementsbetween national banks. If for example the balance of tradebetween Malaysia and Iran during one settlement period,probably three months, was such that Iran had made purchasesof 100 million Malaysian Ringgits, and sales of 90 million Ryals,the difference in the value of these two amounts would be paidin gold dinars.... From the reports of the Malaysian conferences,we deduce that the gold dinar would be one ounce of gold or itsequivalent value.10

At the 2002 seminar, Dr. Mahathir conceded that gold's marketvalue is an unsound basis for valuing the national currency or theprices of national goods, because the value of gold is quite volatile andis subject to manipulation by speculators just as the U.S. dollar is. Hesaid he was thinking instead along the lines of a basket-of-commodi-ties standard for fixing the Gold Dinar's value. Pegging the Dinar tothe value of an entire basket of commodities would make it more stablethan if it were just tied to the whims of the gold market. The GoldDinar has been called a direct challenge to the IMF, which forbidsgold-based currencies; but that charge might be circumvented if theDinar were actually valued against a basket of commodities, as Dr.Mahathir has proposed. It would then not be a gold "currency" butwould be merely an international unit of account, a standard for mea-suring value.

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The Urgent Need for Change

Other Islamic scholars have been debating how to escape the debttrap of the global bankers. Tarek El Diwany is a British expert inIslamic finance and the author of The Problem with Interest (2003).In a presentation at Cambridge University in 2002, he quoted a 1997United Nations Human Development Report underscoring the mas-sive death tolls from the debt burden to the international bankers.The report stated:

Relieved of their annual debt repayments, the severely indebtedcountries could use the funds for investments that in Africa alonewould save the lives of about 21 million children by 2000 andprovide 90 million girls and women with access to basiceducation.11

El Diwany commented, "The UNDP does not say that the bankersare killing the children, it says that the debt is. But who is creating thedebt? The bankers are of course. And they are creating the debt bylending money that they have manufactured out of nothing. In return thedeveloping world pays the developed world USD 700 million per daynet in debt repayments."12 He concluded his Cambridge presentation:

But there is hope. The developing nations should not think thatthey are powerless in the face of their oppressors. Their bestweapon now is the very scale of the debt crisis itself. Acoordinated and simultaneous large scale default on internationaldebt obligations could quite easily damage the Western monetarysystem, and the West knows it. There might be a war of course,or the threat of it, accompanied perhaps by lectures on financialmorality from Washington, but would it matter when there is solittle left to lose? In due course, every oppressed people comesto know that it is better to die with dignity than to live in slavery.Lenders everywhere should remember that lesson well.

We the people of the West can sit back and wait for the revolt, orwe can be proactive and work to solve the problem at its source. Wecan start by designing legislation that would disempower the privateinternational banking spider and empower the people worldwide. Tobe effective, this legislation would need to be negotiated internationally,and it would need to include an agreement for pegging or stabilizingnational currencies on global markets.

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Web of Debt

A Proposal for an International Currency YardstickThat Is Not a Currency

That brings us back to the question of how best to stabilize nationalcurrencies. The simplest and most comprehensive measure forcalibrating an international currency yardstick seems to be theConsumer Price Index proposed by Mann, modified to reflect the realdaily expenditures of consumers. To show how such a system mightwork, here is a hypothetical example. Assume that one InternationalCurrency Unit (ICU) equals the Consumer Price Index or some modifiedversion of it, multiplied by some agreed-upon fraction:

On January 1 of our hypothetical year, a computer sampling of allnational markets indicates that the value of one ICU in the UnitedStates is one dollar. The same goods that one dollar would purchasein the United States can be purchased in Mexico for 10 Mexican pesosand in England for half a British pound. These are the actual prices ofthe selected goods in each country's currency within its own borders,as determined by supply and demand. When you cross the Mexicanborder, you can trade a dollar bill for 10 pesos or a British pound for20 pesos. On either side of the border, one ICU worth of goods can bebought with those sums of money in their respective denominations.

Carlos, who has a business in Mexico, buys 10,000 ICUs worth ofgoods from Sam, who has a business in the United States. Carlos paysfor the goods with 100,000 Mexican pesos. Sam takes the pesos to hislocal branch of the now-federalized Federal Reserve and exchangesthem at the prevailing exchange rate for 10,000 U.S. dollars. The Fedsells the pesos at the prevailing rate to other people interested in con-ducting trade with Mexico. When the Fed accumulates excess pesos(or a positive trade balance), they are sold to the Mexican governmentfor U.S. dollars at the prevailing exchange rate. If the Mexican gov-ernment runs out of U.S. dollars, the U.S. government can either keepthe excess pesos in reserve or it can buy anything it wants that Mexicohas for sale, including but not limited to gold and other commodities.

The following year, Mexico has an election and a change ofgovernments. The new government decides to fund many new socialprograms with newly-printed currency, expanding the supply ofMexican pesos by 10 percent. Under the classical quantity theory ofmoney, this increase in demand (money) will inflate prices, pushing

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Chapter 46 - Building a Bridge

the price of one ICU in Mexico to around 11 Mexican pesos. That isthe conventional theory, but Keynes maintained that if the new pesoswere used to produce new goods and services, supply would increasealong with demand, leaving prices unaffected. (See Chapter 16.)Whichever theory proves to be correct, the point here is that the valueof the peso would be determined by the actual price on the Mexicanmarket of the goods in the modified Consumer Price Index, not by thequantity of Mexican currency traded on international currency marketsby speculators.

Currencies would no longer be traded as commodities fetchingwhat the market would bear, and they would no longer be vulnerableto speculative attack. They would just be coupons for units of valuerecognized globally, units stable enough that commercial traders could"bank" on them. If labor and materials were cheaper in one countrythan another, it would be because they were more plentiful or accessiblethere, not because the country's currency had been devalued byspeculators. The national currency would become what it should havebeen all along - a contract or promise to return value in goods or services ofa certain worth, as measured against a universally recognized yardstick fordetermining value.

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Chapter 47OVER THE RAINBOW:GOVERNMENT WITHOUT TAXES

OR DEBT

"Toto, I have a feeling we're not in Kansas anymore. We must beover the rainbow I"

Going over the rainbow suggested a radical visionary shift,a breakthrough into a new way of seeing the world. We havecome to the end of the Yellow Brick Road, and only a radical shift inour concepts of money and banking will save us from the cement walllooming ahead. We the people got lost in a labyrinth of debt when weallowed paper money to represent an illusory sum of gold held byprivate bankers, who multiplied it many times over in the guise of"fractional reserve" lending. The result was a Ponzi scheme that haspumped the global money supply into a gigantic credit bubble. Asbond investor Bill Gross said in a February 2004 newsletter, we havebeen "skipping down this yellow brick road of capitalism, paved notwith gold, but with thick coats of debt/leverage that requires constantmaintenance."

The levees that have kept a flood of debt-leverage from collapsingthe economy showed signs of cracking on February 27, 2007, whenthe Dow Jones Industrial Average suddenly dropped by more than500 points. The drop was triggered by a series of events like thoseinitiating the Great Crash of 1929. A nearly 9 percent decline in China'sstock market set off a wave of selling in U.S. markets to satisfy "margincalls" (requiring investors using credit to add cash to their accounts tobring them to a certain minimum balance). The Chinese drop, in turn,was triggered by an intentional credit squeeze by Chinese officials,who were concerned that Chinese homeowners were mortgaging theirhomes and businessmen were pledging their businesses as collateral

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to play the over-leveraged Chinese stock market, just as Americaninvestors did in the 1920s.1 Commentators suggested that the Dow fellby only 500 points because of the behind-the-scenes maneuverings ofthe Plunge Protection Team, the Counterparty Risk Management PolicyGroup and the Federal Reserve.2 But it was all just window-dressing,a dog and pony show to keep investors lulled into complacency,inducing them to keep betting on a stock market nag on its last legs.The same pattern has been repeated since, with assorted manipulationsto keep the band playing on; but the iceberg has struck and theeconomic Titanic is sinking.

Like at the end of the Roaring Twenties, we are again looking downthe trough of the "business cycle," mortgaged up to the gills and atrisk of losing it all. We own nothing that can't be taken away. Thehousing market could go into a tailspin and so could the stock market.The dollar could collapse and so could our savings. Even social securityand pensions could soon be things of the past. Before the economycollapses and our savings and security go with it, we need to reversethe sleight of hand that created the bankers' Ponzi scheme. TheConstitutional provision that "Congress shall have the power to coinmoney" needs to be updated so that it covers the national currency inall its forms, including the 97 percent now created with accountingentries by private commercial banks. That modest change couldtransform the dollar from a vice for wringing the lifeblood out of anation of sharecroppers into a bell for ringing in the millennialabundance envisioned by our forefathers. The government couldactually eliminate taxes and the federal debt while expanding the servicesit provides.

The Puzzle Assembled

The pieces to the monetary puzzle have been concealed by layersof deception built up over 400 years, and it has taken some time tounravel them; but the picture has now come clear, and we are readyto recap what we have found. The global debt web has been spunfrom a string of frauds, deceits and sleights of hand, including:

• "Fractional reserve" banking. Formalized in 1694 with the char-ter for the Bank of England, the modern banking system involves creditissued by private bankers that is ostensibly backed by "reserves." Atone time, these reserves consisted of gold; but today they are merelygovernment securities (promises to pay). The banking system lends

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these securities many times over, essentially counterfeiting them.

• The "gold standard." In the nineteenth century, the govern-ment was admonished not to issue paper fiat money on the groundthat it would produce dangerous inflation. The bankers insisted thatpaper money had to be backed by gold. What they failed to disclosewas that there was not nearly enough gold in their own vaults to backthe privately-issued paper notes laying claim to it. The bankers them-selves were dangerously inflating the money supply based on a ficti-tious "gold standard" that allowed them to issue loans many timesover on the same gold reserves, collecting interest each time.

• The "Federal" Reserve. Established in 1913 to create a nationalmoney supply, the Federal Reserve is not federal, and today it keepsnothing in "reserve" except government bonds or I.O.U.s. It is a pri-vate banking corporation authorized to print and sell its own FederalReserve Notes to the government in return for government bonds,putting the taxpayers in perpetual debt for money created privatelywith accounting entries. Except for coins, which make up only aboutone one-thousandth of the money supply, the entire U.S. money sup-ply is now created by the private Federal Reserve and private banks,by extending loans to the government and to individuals and busi-nesses.

• The federal debt and the money supply. The United States wentoff the gold standard in the 1930s, but the "fractional reserve" systemcontinued, backed by "reserves" of government bonds. The federaldebt these securities represent is never paid off but is continually rolledover, forming the basis of the national money supply. As a result ofthis highly inflationary scheme, by January 2007 the federal debt hadmushroomed to $8,679 trillion and was approaching the point at whichthe interest alone would be more than the public could afford to pay.

• The federal income tax. Considered unconstitutional for over acentury, the federal income tax was ostensibly legalized in 1913 bythe Sixteenth Amendment to the Constitution. It was instituted pri-marily to secure a reliable source of money to pay the interest due tothe bankers on the government's securities, and that continues to beits principal use today.

• The Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation and the InternationalMonetary Fund. A principal function of the Federal Reserve was tobail out banks that got over-extended in the fractional-reserve shellgame, using money created in "open market" operations by the Fed.

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When the Federal Reserve failed in that backup function, the FDICand then the IMF were instituted, ensuring that mega-banks considered"too big to fail" would get bailed out no matter what unwarrantedrisks they took.

• The "free market." The theory that businesses in Americaprosper or fail due to "free market forces" is a myth. While smallercorporations and individuals who miscalculate their risks may be leftto their fate in the market, mega-banks and corporations consideredtoo big to fail are protected by a form of federal welfare available onlyto the rich and powerful. Other distortions in free market forces resultfrom the covert manipulations of a variety of powerful entities. Virtuallyevery market is now manipulated, whether by federal mandate or byinstitutional speculators, hedge funds, and large multinational bankscolluding on trades.

• The Plunge Protection Team and the Counterparty RiskManagement Policy Group (CRMPG). Federal manipulation is done bythe Working Group on Financial Markets, also known as the PlungeProtection Team (PPT). The PPT is authorized to use U.S. Treasuryfunds to rig markets in order to "maintain investor confidence,"keeping up the appearance that all is well. Manipulation is also effectedby a private fraternity of big New York banks and investment housesknown as the CRMPG, which was set up to bail its members out offinancial difficulty by colluding to influence markets, again with theblessings of the government and to the detriment of the small investorson the other side of these orchestrated trades.

• The "floating" exchange rate. Manipulation and collusion alsooccur in international currency markets. Rampant currency specula-tion was unleashed in 1971, when the United States defaulted on itspromise to redeem its dollars in gold internationally. National curren-cies were left to "float" against each other, trading as if they werecommodities rather than receipts for fixed units of value. The resultwas to remove the yardstick for measuring value, leaving currenciesvulnerable to attack by international speculators prowling in thesedangerous commercial waters.

• The short sale. To bring down competitor currencies, speculatorsuse a device called the "short sale" - the sale of currency the speculatordoes not own but has theoretically "borrowed" just for purposes ofsale. Like "fractional reserve" lending, the short sale is actually a formof counterfeiting. When speculators sell a currency short in massivequantities, its value is artificially forced down, forcing down the value

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of goods traded in it.

• "Globalization" and "free trade." Before a currency can bebrought down by speculative assault, the country must be induced toopen its economy to "free trade" and to make its currency freely con-vertible into other currencies. The currency can then be attacked anddevalued, allowing national assets to be picked up at fire sale pricesand forcing the country into bankruptcy. The bankrupt country mustthen borrow from international banks and the IMF, which impose asa condition of debt relief that the national government may not issueits own money. If the government tries to protect its resources or itsbanks by nationalizing them for the benefit of its own citizens, it isbranded "communist," "socialist" or "terrorist" and is replaced byone that is friendlier to "free enterprise." Locals who fight back aretermed "terrorists" or "insurgents."

• Inflation myths. The runaway inflation suffered by Third Worldcountries has been blamed on irresponsible governments running themoney printing presses, when in fact these disasters have usually beencaused by speculative attacks on the national currency. Devaluingthe currency forces prices to shoot up overnight. "Creeping inflation"like that seen in the United States today is also blamed on govern-ments irresponsibly printing money, when it is actually caused by pri-vate banks inflating the money supply with debt. Banks advance newmoney as loans that must be repaid with interest, but the banks don'tcreate the interest necessary to service the loans. New loans mustcontinually be taken out to obtain the money to pay the interest, forc-ing prices up in an attempt to cover this new cost, spiraling the economyinto perpetual price inflation.

• The "business cycle." As long as banks keep making low-interestloans, the money supply expands and business booms; but when thecredit bubble gets too large, the central bank goes into action to deflateit. Interest rates are raised, loans are reduced, and the money supplyshrinks, forcing debtors into foreclosure, delivering their homes to thebanks. This is called the "business cycle," as if it were a naturalcondition like the weather. In fact, it is a natural characteristic only ofa monetary scheme in which money comes into existence as a debt toprivate banks for "reserves" of something lent many times over.

• The home mortgage boondoggle. A major portion of the moneycreated by banks today has originated with the "monetization" ofhome mortgages. The borrower thinks he is borrowing pre-existingfunds, when the bank is just turning his promise to repay into an

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"asset" secured by real property. By the time the mortgage is paid off,the borrower has usually paid the bank more in interest than wasowed on the original loan; and if he defaults, the bank winds up withthe house, although the money advanced to purchase it was createdout of thin air.

• The housing bubble. The Fed pushed interest rates to very lowlevels after the stock market collapsed in 2000, significantly shrinkingthe money supply. "Easy" credit pumped the money supply back upand saved the market investments of the Fed's member banks, but italso led to a housing bubble that will again send the economy to thetrough of the "business cycle" as it collapses.

• The Adjustable Rate Mortgage or ARM. The housing bubble wasfanned into a blaze through a series of high-risk changes in mortgageinstruments, including variable rate loans that allowed nearly anyoneto qualify to buy a home who would take the bait. By 2005, about halfof all U.S. mortgages were at "adjustable" interest rates. Purchaserswere lulled by "teaser" rates into believing they could afford mort-gages that were liable to propel them into inextricable debt if not intobankruptcy. Payments could increase by 50 percent after 6 years justby their terms, and could increase by 100 percent if interest rates wentup by a mere 2 percent in 6 years.

• "Securitization" of debt and the credit crisis. The banks movedrisky loans off their books by selling them to unwary investors as "mort-gage-backed securities," allowing the banks to meet capital require-ments to make yet more loans. But when the investors discoveredthat the securities were infected with "toxic" subprime debt they quitbuying them, leaving the banks scrambling for funds.

• The secret insolvency of the banks. The Wall Street banks arethemselves heavily invested in these mortgage-backed securities, aswell as in very risky investments known as "derivatives," which arebasically side bets that some asset will go up or down. Outstandingderivatives are now counted in the hundreds of trillions of dollars,many times the money supply of the world. Banks have been led intothese dangerous waters because traditional commercial banking hasproven to be an unprofitable venture. While banks have the power tocreate money as loans, they also have the obligation to balance theirbooks; and when borrowers default, the losses must be made up fromthe banks' profits. Faced with a wave of bad debts and lost business,banks have kept afloat by branching out into the economically

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destructive derivatives business, by "churning" loans, and by engagingin highly leveraged market trading. Today their books may look likeEnron's, with a veneer of "creative accounting" concealing bankruptcy.

• "Vulture capitalism" and the derivatives cancer. At one time,banks served the community by providing loans to developingbusinesses; but today this essential credit function is being replaced bya form of "vulture capitalism," in which bank investment departmentsand affiliated hedge funds are buying out shareholders and bleedingbusinesses of their profits, using loans of "phantom money" createdon a computer screen. Banks are also underwriting speculativederivative bets, in which money that should be going into economicproductivity is merely gambled on money making money in the casinoof the markets.

• Moral hazard. Both the housing bubble and the derivativesbubble are showing clear signs of imploding; and when they do, banksconsidered too big to fail will expect to be bailed out from the conse-quences of their risky ventures just as they have been in the past....

Waking Up in Kansas

It is at this point in our story, if it is to have a happy ending, thatwe the people must snap ourselves awake, stand up, and say "Enough!"The bankers' extremity is our opportunity. We can be kept indebtedand enslaved only if we continue to underwrite bank profligacy. AsMike Whitney wrote in March 2007, "The Federal Reserve will keepgreasing the printing presses and diddling the interest rates untilsomeone takes away the punch bowl and the party comes to an end."3It is up to us, an awakened and informed populace, to take away thepunch bowl. Private commercial banking as we know it is obsolete,and the vulture capitalist investment banking that has come todominate the banking business is a parasite on productivity, servingits own interests at the expense of the public's. Rather than proppingup a bankrupt banking system, Congress could and should putinsolvent banks into receivership, claim them as public assets, andoperate them as agencies serving the depository and credit needs ofthe people.

Besides the imploding banking system, a second tower is nowpoised to fall. The U.S. federal debt is approaching the point at whichjust the interest on it will be more than the taxpayers can afford to

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pay; and just when foreign investors are most needed to support thisdebt, China and other creditors are threatening to demand not onlythe interest but the principal back on their hefty loans. The Ponzischeme has reached its mathematical limits, forcing another paradigmshift if the economy is to survive. Will the collapse of the debt-basedhouse of cards be the end of the world as we know it? Or will it be theway through the looking glass, a clarion call for change? We can stepout of the tornado into debtors' prison, or we can step into thetechnicolor cornucopia of a money system based on the ingenuity andproductivity that are the true wealth of a nation and its people.

Home at Last

In the happy ending to our modern monetary fairytale, Congresstakes back the power to create money in all its forms, including themoney created with accounting entries by private banks. Highlightsof this satisfying ending include:

• Elimination of personal income taxes, allowing workers to keeptheir wages, putting spending money in people's pockets, stimulatingeconomic growth.

• Elimination of a mounting federal debt that must otherwiseburden and bind future generations.

• The availability of funds for a whole range of governmentservices that have always been needed but could not be afforded underthe "fractional reserve" system, including improved education,environmental cleanup and preservation, universal health care,restoration of infrastructure, independent medical research, anddevelopment of alternative energy sources.

• A social security system that is sufficiently funded to supportretirees, replacing private pensions that keep workers chained tounfulfilling jobs and keep employers unable to compete in interna-tional markets.

• Elimination of the depressions of the "business cycle" that haveresulted when interest rates and reserve requirements have beenmanipulated by the Fed to rein in out-of-control debt bubbles.

• The availability of loans at interest rates that are not subject tounpredictable manipulation by a private central bank but remainmodest and fixed, something borrowers can rely on in making their

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business decisions and in calculating their risks.

• Elimination of the aggressive currency devaluations andeconomic warfare necessary to sustain a money supply built on debt.Exchange rates become stable, the U.S. dollar becomes self-sustaining,and the United States and other countries become self-reliant, tradingfreely with their neighbors without being dependent on foreigncreditors or having to dominate and control other countries andmarkets.

This happy ending is well within the realm of possibility, but itwon't happen unless we the people get our boots on and startmarching. We have become conditioned by our television sets to expectsome hero politician to save the day, but the hero never appears,because both sides dominating the debate are controlled by thebanking/industrial cartel. Nothing will happen until we wake up,get organized, and form a plan. What sort of plan? The platform of arevamped Populist/Greenback/American Nationalist/Whig Partymight include:

1. A bill to update the Constitutional provision that "Congress shallhave the power to coin money" so that it reads, "Congress shallhave the power to create the national currency in all its forms,including not only coins and paper dollars but the nation's creditissued as commercial loans."

2. A call for an independent audit of the Federal Reserve and thegiant banks that own it, including an investigation of:

• The creation of money through "open market operations,"

• The market manipulations of the Plunge Protection Teamand the CRMPG,

• The massive derivatives positions of a small handful ofmega-banks and their use to rig markets, and

• The use of "creative accounting" to mask bank insolvency.

Any banks found to be insolvent would be delivered into FDICreceivership and to the disposal of Congress.

3. Repeal of the Sixteenth Amendment to the Constitution, construedas authorizing a federal income tax.

4. Either repeal of the Federal Reserve Act as in violation of the Con-stitution, or amendment of the Act to make the Federal Reserve atruly federal agency, administered by the U.S. Treasury.

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5. Public acquisition of a network of banks to serve as local bankbranches of the newly-federalized banking system, either by FDICtakeover of insolvent banks or by the purchase of viable bankswith newly-issued U.S. currency. Besides serving depository bank-ing functions, these national banks would be authorized to servicethe credit needs of the public by advancing the "full faith andcredit of the United States" as loans. Any interest charged onadvances of the national credit would be returned to the Treasury,to be used in place of taxes.

6. Elimination of money creation by private "fractional reserve"lending. Private lending would be limited either to recyclingexisting funds or to lending new funds borrowed from the newly-federalized Federal Reserve.

7. Authorization for the Treasury to buy back and retire all of itsoutstanding federal debt, using newly-issued U.S. Notes or Fed-eral Reserve Notes. This could be done gradually over a period ofyears as the securities came due. In most cases it could be doneonline, without physical paper transfers.

8. Advances of interest-free credit to state and local governments forrebuilding infrastructure and other public projects. Congress mightalso consider authorizing interest-free credit to private parties forproperly monitored purposes involving the production of real goodsand services (no speculation or shorting).

9. Authorization for Congress, acting through the Treasury, to issuenew currency annually to be spent on programs that promotedthe general welfare. To prevent inflation, the new currency couldbe spent only on programs that contributed new goods and servicesto the economy, keeping supply in balance with demand; and issuesof new currency would be capped by some ceiling — the unusedproductive capacity of the national work force, or the differencebetween the Gross Domestic Product and the nation's purchasingpower (wages and spendable income). Computer models mightbe run first to determine how rapidly the new money could safelybe infused into the economy.

10. Authorization for Congress to fund programs that would returnmoney to the Treasury in place of taxes, including the develop-ment of cheap effective energy alternatives (wind, solar, oceanwave, etc.) that could be sold to the public for a fee, and affordablepublic housing that returned rents to the government.

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Web of Debt

11. Regulation and control of the exploding derivatives crisis, eitherby imposing a modest .25 percent tax on all derivative trades inorder to track and regulate them, or by imposing an outright banon derivatives trading. If the handful of banks responsible for 97percent of all derivative trades were found after audit to beinsolvent, they could be put into receivership and their derivativetrades could be unwound by the FDIC as receiver.

12. Initiation of a new round of international agreements modeled onthe Bretton Woods Accords, addressing the following monetaryissues, among others:

• The pegging of national currency exchange rates to the valueeither of an agreed-upon standardized price index or an agreed-upon "basket" of commodities;

• International regulation of, or elimination of, speculation inderivatives, short sales, and other forms of trading that areused to manipulate markets;

• Interest-free loans of a global currency issued Greenback-styleby a truly democratic international congress, on the model ofthe Special Drawing Rights of the IMF; and

• The elimination of burdensome and unfair international debts.This could be done by simply writing the debts off the books ofthe issuing banks, reversing the sleight of hand by which theloan money was created in the first place.

13. Other domestic reforms that might be addressed include publicly-financed elections, verifiable paper trails for all voting machines,media reform to break up monopoly ownership, lobby reform,sustainable energy development, basic universal health coverage,reinstating farm parity pricing, and reinstating and strengtheningthe securities laws.

Like the earlier Greenback and Populist Parties, this grassrootspolitical party might not win any major elections; but it could raiseawareness, and when the deluge hit, it could provide an ark. Weneed to spark a revolution in the popular understanding of moneyand banking while free speech is still available on the Internet, inindependent media and in books. New ideas and alternatives need tobe communicated and put into action before the door to our debtors'prison slams shut. The place to begin is in the neighborhood, withbrainstorming sessions in living rooms in the Populist tradition. The

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Chapter 47 - Over the Rainbow

Populists were the people, and what they sought was a people'scurrency. Reviving the "American system" of government-issuedmoney would not represent a radical departure from the Americantradition. It would represent a radical return. Like Dorothy, we thepeople would finally have come home.

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Afterword

THE COLLAPSE OF A300 YEAR PONZI SCHEME

your seatbelt Dorothy, cuz Kansas is going bye bye.

— Cypher to Neo, The Matrix

PostscriptFebruary 2008THE BUBBLE BURSTS

It was very dark, and the wind howled horribly around her ....At first she wondered if she would be dashed to pieces when the housefell again; but as the hours passed and nothing terrible happened, shestopped worrying and resolved to wait calmly and see what the futurewould bring.

— The Wonderful Wizard of Oz, "The Cyclone"

The wheels started flying off the bankers' money machine in July2007, just after this book was first published. The Fed and the PlungeProtection Team did their best to keep the curtain drawn while theyfrantically patched together bailout schemes, but the choking andsputtering of the broken machine was too much to conceal. Suddendramatic declines in the stock market, the housing market, and thecredit market were all quite frightening to the residents of Oz huddledin their vulnerable thatched-roof houses; but there wasn't much theycould do about it, so like Dorothy they resolved to wait and see whatthe future would bring. They had long known that things were not asthey seemed in the Emerald City, and the old facade had to comedown before the real Emerald Isle could appear.

The bubble burst and the meltdown began in earnest when invest-ment bank Bear Stearns had to close two of its hedge funds in June of2007. The hedge funds were trading in collateralized debt obligations(CDOs) — loans that had been sliced up, bundled with less risky loans,and sold as securities to investors. To induce rating agencies to givethem triple-A ratings, these "financial products" had then been in-sured against loss with derivative bets. The alarm bells went off when

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the creditors tried to get their money back. The CDOs were put up forsale, and there were no takers at anywhere near the stated valuations.Mark Gilbert, writing on Bloomberg.com, observed:

The efforts by Bear Stearns's creditors to extricate themselvesfrom their investments have laid bare one of the derivativesmarket's dirty little secrets — prices are mostly generated by aconfidence trick. As long as all of the participants keep a straightface when agreeing on a particular value for a security, that'sthe price. As soon as someone starts giggling, however, the jig isup, and the bookkeepers might have to confess to a new, lowerprice.1

The secret of the Wall Street wizards was out: the derivatives gamewas a confidence trick, and when confidence was lost, the trick nolonger worked. The $681 trillion derivatives bubble was an illusion.Panic spread around the world, as increasing numbers of investmentbanks had to prevent "runs" on their hedge funds by refusingwithdrawals from nervous customers who had bet the farm on thisillusory scheme. Between July and August 2007, the Dow JonesIndustrial Average plunged a thousand points, promptingcommentators to warn of a 1929-style crash. When the "liquiditycrisis" became too big for the investment banks to handle, the centralbanks stepped in; but in this case the "crisis" wasn't actually the resultof a lack of money in the system. The newly-created money lent tosubprime borrowers was still circulating in the economy; the borrowersjust weren't paying it back to the banks. Investors still had money toinvest; they just weren't using it to buy "triple-A" asset-backedsecurities that had toxic subprime mortgages embedded in them. The"faith-based" money system of the banks was frozen into illiquiditybecause no one was buying it anymore.

The solution of the U.S. Federal Reserve, along with the centralbanks of Europe, Canada, Australia and Japan, was to conjure up$315 billion in "credit" and extend it to troubled banks and investmentfirms. The rescued institutions included Countrywide Financial, thelargest U.S. mortgage lender. Countrywide was being called the nextEnron, not only because it was facing bankruptcy but because it wasguilty of some quite shady practices. It underwrote and sold hundredsof thousands of mortgages containing false and misleadinginformation, which were then sold to the international banking andinvestment markets as securities. The lack of liquidity in the marketswas blamed directly on the corrupt practices at Countrywide and other

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lenders of its ilk. According to one analyst, "Entire nations are now atrisk of their economies collapsing because of this fraud."2 But that didnot deter the U.S. central bank from sending in a lifeboat. Countrywidewas saved from insolvency when Bank of America bought $2 billionof Countrywide stock with a loan made available by the Fed at newly-reduced interest rates. Bank of America also got a windfall out of thedeal, since when investors learned that Countrywide was beingrescued, the stock it had just purchased with money borrowed fromthe Fed shot up. The market hemorrhage was bandaged over, theDow turned around, and investors breathed a sigh of relief. All waswell again in Stepfordville, or so it seemed.

The Return of the Obsolete Bank Run

Just as the men behind the curtain appeared to have everythingunder control in the United States, the global credit crisis hit in England.In September 2007, Northern Rock, Britain's fifth-largest mortgagelender, was besieged at branches across the country, as thousands ofworried customers queued for hours in hopes of getting their moneyout before the doors closed. It was called the worst bank run since the1970s. Bank officials feared that as much as half the bank's depositbase could be withdrawn before the run was over. By September 14,2007, Northern Rock's share price had dropped 30 percent; and onSeptember 17 it dropped another 35 percent. There was talk of apublic takeover. "If the run on deposits looks out of control," said oneofficial, "Northern Rock would effectively be nationalised and put intoadministration so it could be wound down."3

The bloodletting slowed after the government issued an emergencypledge to Northern Rock's worried savers that their money was safe,but analysts said the credit crisis was here to stay. As BBC Newsexplained the problem: "Northern Rock has struggled since moneymarkets seized up over the summer. The bank is not short of assets,but they are tied up in loans to home owners. Because of the globalcredit crunch it has found it difficult to borrow the cash to run its day-to-day operations."4 The bank was "borrowing short to lend long,"playing a shell game with its customers' money.

While angry depositors were storming Northern Rock in England,Countrywide Financial was again quietly being snatched from thevoid in the United States, this time with $12 billion in new-found fi-nancing. Financing found where? Peter Ralter wrote in

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LeMetropoleCafe.com on September 16, 2007:

[W]hy is it that the $2 billion investment by Bank of America inCountrywide was front page news in August while thecompany's new $12 billion financing is buried on the businesspages? Isn't it funny, too, that Countrywide didn't specify whois providing all that money, saying only that it comes from "newor existing credit lines." There was no comment, either, on thecredit or interest terms - this for $12 billion! It makes me suspectthat Countrywide's new angel isn't the B of A, but rather the Bof B; the Bank of Bernanke.5

But Countrywide's downward slide continued — until January2008, when Bank of America agreed to buy it for $4.1 billion. Againeyebrows were raised. Bank of America had just announced that itwas cleaning house and cutting 650 jobs. Was the deal another bail-out with money funneled from the Fed and its Plunge Protection Team?As John Hoefle noted in 2002, "Major financial crises are never an-nounced in the newspapers but are instead treated as a form of na-tional security secret, so that various bailouts and market-manipula-tion activities can be performed behind the scenes."6

That is true in the United States, where bailouts are conducted bya private central bank answerable to other private banks; but inEngland, the central bank is at least technically owned by thegovernment, warranting more transparency. The cost of thattransparency, however, was that the Bank of England came underheavy public criticism for its bailout of Northern Rock. It was criticizedfor waiting too long and for bailing the bank out at all, emboldeningother banks in their risky ventures.

At one time, U.S. bailouts were also done openly, through the FDICunder the auspices of Congress; but that approach cost votes. Thefailure of President George Bush Sr. to win a second term in office wasblamed in part on the bailout of Long Term Capital Management thatwas engineered during his first term. The public cost was all too obviousto taxpayers and the more solvent banks, which wound up payinghigher FDIC insurance premiums to provide a safety net for their high-rolling competitors. As Congressman Ron Paul noted in 2005:

These "premiums," which are actually taxes, are the primarysource of funds for the Deposit Insurance Fund. This fund isused to bail out banks that experience difficulties meetingcommitments to their depositors. Thus, the deposit insurancesystem transfers liability for poor management decisions from

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those who made the decisions to their competitors. This systempunishes those financial institutions that follow sound practices,as they are forced to absorb the losses of their competitors. Thisalso compounds the moral hazard problem created whenevergovernment socializes business losses. In the event of a severebanking crisis, Congress likely will transfer funds from generalrevenues into the Deposit Insurance Fund, which would makeall taxpayers liable for the mistakes of a few.7

Under the Fed's new stealth bailout plan, it could avoid this sort ofunpleasant scrutiny by taxing the public indirectly through inflation.No longer was it necessary to go begging to Congress for money. TheFed could just create "credit" with accounting entries. As Chris Powellcommented on the GATA website in August 2007, "in central bank-ing, if you need money for anything, you just sit down and type someup and click it over to someone who is ready to do as you ask with it."He added:

If it works for the Federal Reserve, Bank of America, andCountrywide, it can work for everyone else. For it is no moredifficult for the Fed to conjure $2 billion for Bank of Americaand its friends to "invest" in Countrywide than it would be forthe Fed to wire a few thousand dollars into your checkingaccount, calling it, say, an advance on your next tax cut or amortgage interest rebate awarded to you because some big, badlender encouraged you to buy a McMansion with no moneydown in the expectation that you could flip it in a few monthsfor enough profit to buy a regular house.8

Better yet, the government itself could issue the money, and use itto fund a tax-free, debt-free stimulus package spent into the economyon productive ventures such as infrastructure and public housing. Amere $188 billion would have been enough to repair all of the country's74,000 bridges known to be defective, preventing another tragedy likethe disastrous Minnesota bridge collapse seen in July 2007. Needlessto say, the $300 billion collectively extended by the central banks didnot go for anything so socially useful as building bridges or roads.Rather, it went into subsidizing the very banks that had precipitatedthe crisis, keeping them afloat for further profligacy.

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The Derivative Iceberg Emerges from the Deep

Alarm bells sounded again in January 2008, when global marketstook their worst tumble since September 11, 2001. The precipitousdrop was blamed on the threat of downgrades in the ratings of twomajor mortgage bond insurers, followed by a $7.2 billion loss in de-rivative trades by Societe Generale, France's second-largest bank. Thecollapse in international markets occurred on January 21, 2008, whenU.S. markets were closed for Martin Luther King Day. It was badtiming: there was no Federal Reserve, no Plunge Protection Team, noCNBC Squawk Box on duty to massage the market back up. If therewas any lingering doubt about whether a Plunge Protection Teamactually went into action in such situations, it was dispelled by a state-ment by Senator Hillary Clinton reported by the State News Serviceon January 22, 2008. She said:

I think it's imperative that the following step be taken. ThePresident should have already and should do so very quickly,convene the President's Working Group on Financial Markets.That's something that he can ask the Secretary of the Treasuryto do. . . . This has to be coordinated across markets with theregulators here and obviously with regulators and central banksaround the world.9

The Plunge Protection Team evidently responded to the call, becausethe market reversed course the next day; but the curtain had beenthrown back long enough to see what the future might bode. Both theFrench crisis and the bond insurance crisis were linked to the teeteringderivatives pyramid. Market analyst Jim Sinclair called it "the crimeof all time," but he wasn't referring to the French debacle. He wasreferring to the derivative scam itself.10

The record loss by Societe Generale was blamed on a single 31-year-old "rogue trader" engaging in "fictitious trades." That was howthe story was reported, but the bank admitted that the trader had notpersonally benefited. He was trading for the bank's own account.The "fraud" was evidently in concealing what he had done until thelosses were too massive to hide. Carol Matlack, writing in BusinessWeek, asked:

How could SocGen, which ironically was just named EquityDerivatives House of the Year by the financial risk-managementmagazine Risk, have failed to detect unauthorized trading that

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it acknowledges took place over a period of several months? Dobanks need to tighten the controls put in place after rogue traderNick Leeson brought down Barings Bank in 1995? Or is the red-hot business of equities-derivatives trading just too tricky tocontrol? ....

Some risk-management experts contend that such a scandalwas inevitable, given the global boom in trading exotic securities."This stuff happens more than people may like to admit," saysChris Whalen, director of consulting group Institutional RiskAnalytics. Banks increasingly are moving away from traditionalbanking into riskier trading activities, he says. SocGen's problemwas "a rogue business model, it's not a rogue trader."11

The "rogue business model" is the derivatives game itself. Thewhole $681 trillion scheme is largely a confidence trick composed of"fictitious trades." Jim Sinclair wrote:

I see this entire matter as the crime of all time .... Defaultswaps' and derivatives were always a scam if you consider theirinability to do what they had contracted to do.... All that existedwas world class unbridled greed. . . . [T]he entire financial worldis now threatened with a problem for which there is no practicalsolution... unwinding derivatives that are hell bent on producinga Financial Apocalypse.12

Unbridling Greed:The Effects of Deregulation

That the derivatives scam was indeed mainly about greed wasconfirmed by investment guru and trading insider Jim Cramer in atelevised episode on January 17,2008. Mike Whitney, who transcribedthe rant, writes:

In Cramer's latest explosion, he details his own involvement increating and selling "structured products" which had never been

u A credit default swap is a form of insurance in which the risk of default istransferred from the holder of a security to the seller of the swap. The problem isthat the seller of credit protection can collect premiums without proving it canpay up in the event of default, so there is no guarantee that the money willactually be there when default occurs.

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stress-tested in a slumping market. No one knew how badly theywould perform. Cramer admits that the motivation behindpeddling this junk to gullible investors was simply greed. Here'shis statement:

"IT'S ALL ABOUT THE COMMISSION"

[We used to say] "The commissions on structured products areso huge, let's jam it." [Note "jam it" means foist it on thecustomer.] It's all about the 'commish'. The commission onstructured product is gigantic. I could make a fortune 'jammingthat crummy paper' but I had a degree of conscience — what ashocker! We used to regulate people but they decided duringthe Reagan revolution that that was bad. So we don't regulateanyone anymore. But listen, the commission in structuredproduct is so gigantic. . . . First of all the customer has no ideawhat the product really is because it is invented. Second, youassume the customer is really stupid; like we used to say aboutthe German bankers, 'The German banks are just Bozos. Throwthem anything.' Or the Australians, 'Morons.' Or the FloridaFund [ha ha], "They're so stupid, let's give them Triple B" [junkgrade]. Then we'd just laugh and laugh at the customers andjam them with the commission. . . . Remember, this is aboutcommissions, about how much money you can make by jammingstupid customers. I've seen it all my life; you jam stupidcustomers."13

Greed has been fostered not only by the repeal of the Glass-SteagallAct but by the corporate structure itself. Traders and managementcan hide behind the "corporate shield," walking away with hugebonuses and commissions while the company is dissolved inbankruptcy. Angelo Mozilo, the CEO of Countrywide, is expected toleave the corporation with about $50 million, after virtuallybankrupting the company and a horde of borrowers and investorsalong with it.14 The current unregulated environment parallels theabuses of the 1920s. Journalist Robert Kuttner testified before the HouseCommittee on Financial Services in October 2007:

Since repeal of Glass Steagall in 1999, after more than a decadeof de facto inroads, super-banks have been able to re-enact thesame kinds of structural conflicts of interest that were endemicin the 1920s — lending to speculators, packaging and securitizingcredits and then selling them off, wholesale or retail, and

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extracting fees at every step along the way. And, much of thispaper is even more opaque to bank examiners than itscounterparts were in the 1920s. Much of it isn't paper at all,and the whole process is supercharged by computers andautomated formulas.

Unlike in the 1920s, the financial system is now precariouslyperched atop $681 trillion in derivatives dominoes, which will comecrashing down when the gamblers try to cash in their bets. The bettinggame that was supposed to balance and stabilize markets has woundup destabilizing them because most players have bet the same way —on a continually rising market. Kuttner said:

An independent source of instability is that while these creditderivatives are said to increase liquidity and serve as shockabsorbers, in fact their bets are often in the same direction —assuming perpetually rising asset prices — so in a credit crisisthey can act as net de-stabilizers.15

The lenders gambled that they could avoid liability by selling riskyloans to investors, and the bond insurers gambled that they wouldnever have to pay out on claims. That was another of Cramer's rants:unlike car insurers or home insurers, the all-important bond insurersdo not have the money to pay up on potential claims ....

Insurers That Bet They Would Never Have to Pay

While media attention was focused on the French "rogue trader"incident, what really drove the market's plunge in late January 2008was the downgrade by one rating agency (Fitch) of one of the"monoline" insurers (Ambac) and the threatened downgrade ofanother (MBIA).16 The monolines are in the business of sellingprotection against bond default, lending their triple-A ratings tootherwise risky ventures. They are called "monolines" becauseregulators allow them to serve only one industry, the bond industry.That means they cannot jeopardize your fire insurance or your healthinsurance, only the money you or your pension fund invests in "safe"triple-A bonds. The monolines insure against default by selling "creditdefault swaps." Basically, they insure by taking bets. Credit defaultswaps enable buyers and sellers to place bets on the likelihood thatloans will go into default.17 The insurers serve as the "riskcounterparties," but they don't actually have to ante up in order toplay. They just sit back and collect the premiums for taking the risk

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that some unlikely event will occur. The theory is that this "spreadsthe risk" by shifting it to those most able to pay - the insurers thatcollect many premiums and have to pay out on only a few claims.The theory works when the event insured against actually is unlikely.It works with fire insurance, because most insureds don't experiencefires. It also works with munipical bonds, which almost never default.But the monolines made the mistake of insuring corporate bondsbacked by subprime mortgages. The catastrophe insured against wasa collapse in the housing market; and when it occurred, it occurredeverywhere at once. Investments everywhere were going up in flames,"spreading risk" like a computer virus around the world.

According to a 2005 article in Fortune Magazine, MBIA claimedto have "no-loss underwriting." That meant it never expected orintended to have to pay out on claims. It took only "safe bets." In2002, MBIA was leveraged 139 to one: it had $764 billion in outstandingguarantees and a mere $5.5 billion in equity.18 So how did it get itstriple-A rating? The rating agencies said they based their assessmentson past performance; and during the boom years, there actually werevery few claims. That was before the housing bubble burst. Today,MBIA is being called the Enron of the insurance business.

The downgrade of Ambac in January 2008 was merely from AAAto AA, not something that would seem to be of market-rockingsignificance. But a loss of Ambac's AAA rating signaled a simultaneousdown-grade in the bonds it insured — bonds from over 100,000municipalities and institutions, totaling more than $500 billion.19 Sincemany institutional investors have a fiduciary duty to invest in only the"safest" triple-A bonds, downgraded bonds are dumped on the market,jeopardizing the banks that are still holding billions of dollars worthof these bonds. The institutional investors that had formerly boughtmortgage-backed bonds stopped buying them in 2007, when thehousing market slumped; but the big investment houses that wereselling them, including Citigroup and Merrill Lynch, had billions' worthleft on their books. If MBIA, an even larger insurer than Ambac, wereto lose its triple-A rating, severe losses could result to the banks.20

What to do? The men behind the curtain came up with anotherbailout scheme: they would create the appearance of safety by proppingthe insurers up with a pool of money collected from the banks. Theplan was for eight Wall Street banks to provide $15 billion to theinsurers, something the banks would supposedly be willing to do topreserve the ratings on their own securities. The insured would be

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underwriting their insurers! The image evoked was of two drowningmen trying to save each other. Even if it worked in the short term, itwould only buy time. The default iceberg was only beginning to emerge.According to an article in the U.K. Times Online, saving the insurerscould actually cost $200 billion.21 It was an ante that could bankruptthe banks even if they were to agree to it, which was unlikely —particularly when at least one of the banking giants, Goldman Sachs,actually had an interest in seeing the insurers go down. While on oneside of its Chinese wall, Goldman was devising and selling mortgage-backed securities, on the other side it was selling the same marketshort. Goldman was credited with unusual prescience in this play,but the other banks possessed the same information. Goldman wasdistinguished only in having the temerity to bet against its own faultyderivative products.22 With the repeal of Glass-Steagall, creditor bankscan bet against debtors using short sales, putting them in a position toprofit more if the debtors go down than by trying to save them. Ratherthan becoming a partner, the parasite has become a predator. Theparasite no longer has to keep its host alive but can actually profitfrom its demise.

Bracing for a Storm of Litigation

Congress and the Fed may have unleashed an era of greed, butthe courts are still there to referee. Among other daunting challengesfacing the banks today is that when the curtain is lifted on theirderivative schemes, the defrauded investors will turn around and sue.The hot potato of liability the banks thought they had pitched to theinvestors will be tossed back to the banks. In an article in The SanFrancisco Chronicle in December 2007, attorney Sean Olendersuggested that this was the real reason for the subprime bailoutschemes being proposed by the U.S. Treasury Department — not tokeep strapped borrowers in their homes but to stave off a spate oflawsuits against the banks. One proposal was the creation of a new"superfund" that would buy risky mortgage bonds, concealing howlittle those bonds were actually worth. When that plan wasabandoned, Treasury Secretary Henry Paulson proposed an interestrate freeze on a limited number of subprime loans. Olender wrote:

The sole goal of the freeze is to prevent owners of mortgage-backed securities, many of them foreigners, from suing U.S. banksand forcing them to buy back worthless mortgage securities at

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face value - right now almost 10 times their market worth. Theticking time bomb in the U.S. banking system is not resettingsubprime mortgage rates. The real problem is the contractual abilityof investors in mortgage bonds to require banks to buy back the loansat face value if there was fraud in the origination process.

. . . The catastrophic consequences of bond investors forcingoriginators to buy back loans at face value are beyond the currentmedia discussion. The loans at issue dwarf the capital available atthe largest U.S. banks combined, and investor lawsuits would raisestunning liability sufficient to cause even the largest U.S. banks tofail, resulting in massive taxpayer-funded bailouts of Fannie andFreddie, and even FDIC ....

What would be prudent and logical is for the banks thatsold this toxic waste to buy it back and for a lot of people to go toprison. If they knew about the fraud, they should have to buy thebonds back.23

The thought could send a chill through even the most powerful ofinvestment bankers, including Henry Paulson himself. Olender notesthat Paulson headed Goldman Sachs during the heyday of toxicsubprime paper-writing from 2004 to 2006. Mortgage fraud was notlimited to representations made to or by borrowers or in loandocuments. It was in the design of the banks' "financial products"themselves. One design flaw was that the credit default swaps usedto insure against loan default contained no guaranty that thecounterparties had the money to pay up. Another flaw was discussedin Chapter 31: securitized mortgage debt was made so complex that itwas nearly impossible to know who owned the underlying propertiesin a typical mortgage pool; and without a legal owner, there was noone with standing to foreclose on the collateral. That was theprocedural problem prompting Federal District Judge ChristopherBoyko to rule in October 2007 that Deutsche Bank did not have standingto foreclose on 14 mortgage loans held in trust for a pool of mortgage-backed securities holders. The pool lacked standing because it wasnowhere named in the recorded documents conveying title.24 If largenumbers of defaulting homeowners were to contest their foreclosureson the ground that the plaintiffs lacked standing to sue, trillions ofdollars in mortgage-backed securities could be at risk. Irate securitiesholders might then respond with litigation that could well threatenthe existence of the banking Goliaths; and a behind-the-scenes bailoutwould be hard to engineer in those circumstances, since investor

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Web of Debt

lawsuits are not easily hidden behind closed doors.

"We're Not Going to Take It Anymore!"City Officials File Suit Against the Banks

The banks are facing legal battles on another front: disgruntledlocal officials have started taking them to court. A harbinger of thingsto come was a first-of-its-kind lawsuit filed in January 2008 byCleveland Mayor Frank Jackson against 21 major investment banks,for enabling the subprime lending and foreclosure crisis in his city.City officials said they hoped to recover hundreds of millions of dollarsin damages from the banks, including lost taxes from devaluedproperty and money spent demolishing and boarding up thousandsof abandoned houses. The defendants included banking giantsDeutsche Bank, Goldman Sachs, Merrill Lynch, Wells Fargo, Bank ofAmerica and Citigroup. They were charged with creating a "publicnuisance" by irresponsibly buying and selling high-interest home loans,causing widespread defaults that depleted the city's tax base and leftneighborhoods in ruins.

"To me, this is no different than organized crime or drugs," Jacksontold the Cleveland newspaper The Plain Dealer. "It has the sameeffect as drug activity in neighborhoods. It's a form of organized crimethat happens to be legal in many respects." He added in a videotapedinterview, "This lawsuit said, 'You're not going to do this to us anymore.'"

The Plain Dealer also interviewed Ohio Attorney General MarcDann, who was considering a state lawsuit against some of the sameinvestment banks. "There's clearly been a wrong done," he said, "andthe source is Wall Street. I'm glad to have some company on myhunt."

The Cleveland lawsuit followed another the same week, in whichthe city of Baltimore sued Wells Fargo Bank for damages from thesubprime debacle. The Baltimore suit alleged that Wells Fargo hadintentionally discriminated in selling high-interest mortgages morefrequently to blacks than to whites, in violation of federal law. But theinnovative Cleveland suit took much wider aim, targeting theinvestment banks that fed off the mortgage market by buying subprimemortgages from lenders and then "securitizing" them and selling themto investors.25

On February 1, 2008, the State of Massachusetts filed another sortof lawsuit against a major investment bank. The complaint was for

477

Postscript

fraud and misrepresentation concerning about $14 million worth ofsubprime securities sold to the city of Springfield by Merrill Lynch.The complaint focused on the sale of "certain esoteric financialinstruments known as collateralized debt obligations (CDOs)... whichwere unsuitable for the city and which, within months after the sale,became illiquid and lost almost all of their market value."26 The suit setanother bold precedent that bodes ill for the banks.

The dark cloud hanging over Wall Street, however, has a silverlining for debtors and taxpayers. If Massachusetts prevails in its suit,tax burdens will be relieved; and if Cleveland prevails in its suit, thecity could retrieve 10,000 abandoned homes that are now healthhazards to their communities and sell them or rent them as low incomehousing. Following the precedent established by Judge Boyko in Ohio,home buyers served with foreclosure actions can demand to see proofof recorded title before packing their bags. And these legal successes,in turn, may empower other victims to rise up and say, "We're notgoing to take it anymore."

Private litigation can thwart the culture of greed, but a real solutionto the debt crisis will no doubt take coordinated public action. AsMike Whitney observed in Counterpunch in February 2008:

When equity bubbles collapse, everybody pays. Demand forgoods and services diminishes, unemployment soars, banks fold,and the economy stalls. That's when governments have to stepin and provide programs and resources that keep peopleworking and sustain business activity. Otherwise there will beanarchy. Middle class people are ill-suited for life under a freewayoverpass. They need a helping hand from government. Biggovernment. Good-bye, Reagan. Hello, F.D.R.27

The problem with FDR's solution was that he borrowed from banksthat created the money as it was lent, putting the taxpayers heavily indebt for money the government could have created itself. A bettersolution would be for the government to spend without borrowing,using its own debt-free Greenback dollars.

That would be the better road to Oz, but whether the EmeraldCity can be reached before the land falls into anarchy and a policestate is imposed remains to be seen. Will Dorothy's house comecrashing down on the Witch? Will she pull the silver slippers fromthe Witch's feet and step into their magical power? Or will she keeprunning after humbug Wizards who are under the Witch's spellthemselves? Stay tuned ....

478

GLOSSARY

Adjustable Rate Mortgage (ARM): a type of mortgage loan program inwhich the interest rate and payments are adjusted as frequently asevery month. The purpose of the program is to allow mortgage interestrates to fluctuate with market conditions.

Bankrupt: unable to pay one's debts, insolvent, having liabilities inexcess of a reasonable market value of assets held.

Bear raid: the practice of targeting the stock of a particular companyfor take-down by massive short selling, either for quick profits or forcorporate takeover.

Bears versus bulls: Bears think the market will go down; bulls think itwill go up.

Book value: the total assets of a company minus its liabilities such asdebt.

Bubble: an illusory inflation in price that is grossly out of proportion tounderlying values.

Business cycle: a predictable long-term pattern of alternating periodsof economic growth (recovery) and decline (recession).

Capitalization: market value of a company's stock.

Cartel: a combination of producers of any product joined together tocontrol its production, sale and price, so as to obtain a monopoly andrestrict competition in that industry or commodity.

Central bank: a non-commercial bank, which may or may not beindependent of government, which has some or all of the followingfunctions: conduct monetary policy; oversee the stability of thefinancial system; issue currency notes; act as banker to the government;supervise financial institutions and regulate payments systems.

Chinese walls: information barriers implemented in firms to separateand isolate persons within a firm who make investment decisions frompersons within a firm who are privy to undisclosed material

479

information which may influence those decisions, in order to safeguardinside information and ensure there is no improper trading.

Compound interest: interest calculated not only on the initial principalbut on the accumulated interest of prior payment periods.

Conspiracy: an agreement between two or more persons to commit acrime or accomplish a legal purpose through illegal action.

Counterfeit: to make a copy of, usually with the intent to defraud.

Counterparties: parties to a contract, usually having a potentialconflict of interest. Within the financial services sector, the term marketcounterparty is used to refer to national banks, governments, nationalmonetary authorities and multinational monetary organizations suchas the World Bank Group, which act as the ultimate guarantor for loansand indemnities. The term may also be applied to companies acting inthat role.

Currency: Money in any form when in actual use as a medium ofexchange, facilitating the transfer of goods and services.

Customs: duties on imported goods.

Deficit spending: government spending in excess of what thegovernment takes in as tax revenue.

Deflation: A contraction in the supply of money or credit that resultsin declining prices; the opposite of inflation.

Demand deposits: bank deposits that can be withdrawn on demand atany time without notice. Most checking and savings accounts aredemand deposits.

Depository: a bank that holds funds deposited by others and facilitatesexchanges of those funds.

Derivative: A financial instrument whose characteristics and valuedepend upon the characteristics and value of an "underlier," typicallya commodity, bond, equity or currency. Familiar examples ofderivatives include "futures" and "options."

Discount: The difference between the face amount of a note ormortgage and the price at which the instrument is sold on the market.

480

Equity: ownership interest in a corporation.

Equity market: the stock market - a system through which companyshares are traded, offering investors an opportunity to participate in acompany's success through an increase in its stock price.

Excise taxes: internal taxes imposed on certain non-essential consumergoods.

Federal funds rate: the rate that banks charge each other on overnightloans made between them.

Federal Reserve: the central bank of the United States; a system offederal banks charged with regulating the U.S. money supply, mainlyby buying and selling U.S. securities and setting the discount interestrate (the interest rate at which the Federal Reserve lends money tocommercial banks).

Federal Reserve banks: The banks that carry out Federal Reserveoperations, including controlling the money supply and regulatingmember banks. There are 12 District Feds, headquartered in Boston,New York, Philadelphia, Cleveland, St. Louis, San Francisco,Richmond, Atlanta, Chicago, Minneapolis, Kansas City, and Dallas.

Floating exchange rate: a foreign exchange rate that is not fixed bynational authorities but varies according to supply and demand.

Fiat: Latin for "let it be done;" an arbitrary order or decree.

Fiat money: Legal tender, especially paper currency, authorized by agovernment but not based on or convertible into gold or silver.

Fiscal year: The U.S. government's fiscal year begins on October 1 ofthe previous calendar year and ends on September 30.

Float: The number of shares of a security that are outstanding andavailable for trading by the public.

Fraud: a false representation of a matter of fact, whether by words orby conduct, by false or misleading allegations, or by concealment ofthat which should have been disclosed, which deceives and is intendedto deceive another so that he shall act upon it to his legal injury.

481

Free trade: trade between nations unrestricted by import duties, exportbounties, domestic production subsidies, trade quotas, or importlicenses. Critics say that in more developed nations, free trade resultsin jobs being "exported" abroad, where labor costs are lower; while inless developed nations, workers and the environment are exploited byforeign financiers, who take labor and raw materials in exchange forpaper money the national government could have created itself.

Globalization: the tendency of businesses, technologies, orphilosophies to spread throughout the world, or the process of makingthem spread throughout the world.

Go Id standard: a monetary system in which currency is convertible intofixed amounts of gold.

Gross domestic product: the value of all final goods and servicesproduced in a country in a year.

Hedge funds: investment companies that use high-risk techniques, suchas borrowing money and selling short, in an effort to makeextraordinary capital gains for their investors.

Hyperinflation: a period of rapid inflation that leaves a country'scurrency virtually worthless.

Inflation: a persistent increase in the level of consumer prices or apersistent decline in the purchasing power of money, caused by anincrease in available currency and credit beyond the proportion ofavailable goods and services.

Infrastructure: the set of interconnected structural elements thatprovide the framework for supporting the entire structure. In acountry, it consists of the basic facilities needed for the country'sfunctioning, providing a public framework under which privateenterprise can operate safely and efficiently.

Investment banks help companies and governments issue securities,help investors purchase securities, manage financial assets, tradesecurities and provide financial advice. Unlike commercial banks, theydo not take deposits or make commercial loans; but the lines haveblurred with the 1999 repeal of the Glass Steagall Act, whichprohibited the same bank from taking deposits and underwriting

482

securities. Leading investment banks include Merrill Lynch, SalomonSmith Barney, Morgan Stanley Dean Witter and Goldman Sachs.

Legal tender, money that must legally be accepted in the payment ofdebts.

Leveraging: buying with borrowed money. Leverage is the degree towhich an investor or business is using borrowed money.

Liquidity: the ability of an asset to be converted into cash quickly andwithout discount.

Margin: an investor who buys on margin buys with money he doesn'thave, borrowing a percentage of the purchase price from the broker, tobe repaid when the stock or other investment goes up. People usuallyopen margin accounts, not because they're short of cash, but becausethey can "leverage" their investment by buying many times the amountof stock they could have bought if they had paid the full price.

Margin call: a broker's demand on an investor using borrowed moneyto deposit additional money or securities to bring the margin accountup to a certain minimum balance. If one or more of the investor'ssecurities have decreased in value past a certain point, the broker willcall and require the investor either to deposit more money in theaccount or to sell off some of the stock.

Monetize: to convert government debt from securities into currencythat can be used to purchase goods and services.

Money market: the trade in short-term, low-risk securities, such ascertificates of deposit and U.S. Treasury notes.

Money supply: the entire quantity of bills, coins, loans, credit, and otherliquid instruments in a country's economy. "Liquid" instruments arethose easily convertible to cash. The money supply has traditionallybeen reported by the Federal Reserve in three categories - Ml, M2, andM3, although it quit reporting M3 after March 2006. Ml is what weusually think of as money - coins, dollar bills, and the money in ourchecking accounts. M2 is Ml plus savings accounts, money marketfunds, and other individual or "small" time deposits. M3 is Ml and M2plus institutional and other larger time deposits (including institutionalmoney market funds) and eurodollars (American dollars circulatingabroad).

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Moral hazard: the risk that the existence of a contract will change thebehavior of the parties to it; for example, a firm insured for fire may takefewer fire precautions. In the case of banks, it is the hazard that theywill expect to be bailed out from their profligate ways because theyhave been bailed out in the past.

Mortgage: A loan to finance the purchase of real estate, usuallywith specified payment periods and interest rates.

Multiplier effect: according to Investopedia, "the expansion of acountry's money supply that results from banks being able to lend."

Oligarchy: government by a few, usually the rich, for their ownadvantage.

Open market operations: the buying and selling of governmentsecurities in the open market in order to expand or contract theamount of money in the banking system.

Ponzi scheme: a form of pyramid scheme in which investors arepaid with the money of later investors. Charles Ponzi was anengaging Boston ex-convict who defrauded investors out of $6million in the 1920s, in a scheme in which he promised them a 400percent return on redeemed postal reply coupons. For a while, hepaid earlier investors with the money of later investors; buteventually he just collected without repaying. The scheme earnedhim ten years in jail.

Posse comitatus: a statute preventing the U.S. active military fromparticipating in American law enforcement.

Plutocracy: a form of government in which the supreme power islodged in the hands of the wealthy classes; government by the rich.

Privatization: the sale of public assets to private corporations.

Proprietary trading: a term used in investment banking to describewhen a bank trades stocks, bonds, options, commodities, or otheritems with its own money as opposed to its customers' money, so asto make a profit for itself. Although investment banks are usuallydefined as businesses which assist other business in raising moneyin the capital markets (by selling stocks or bonds), in fact most of

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Web of Debt

the largest investment banks make the majority of their profit fromtrading activities.

Receivership: a form of bankruptcy in which a company can avoidliquidation by reorganizing with the help of a court-appointed trustee.

Reflation: the intentional reversal of deflation through monetaryaction by a government.

Republic: A political order in which the supreme power lies in a bodyof citizens who are entitled to vote for officers and representativesresponsible to them.

Repurchase agreement ("repo"): The sale or purchase of securities withan agreement to reverse the transaction at an agreed future date andprice. Repos allow the Federal Reserve to inject liquidity on one dayand withdraw it on another with a single transaction.

Reserve requirement: The percentage of funds the Federal ReserveBoard requires that member banks maintain on deposit at all times.

Security: A type of transferable interest representing financial value;an investment instrument issued by a corporation, government, orother organization that offers evidence of debt or equity.

Short sale: Borrowing a security and selling it in the hope of being ableto repurchase it more cheaply before repaying the lender. A naked shortsale is a short sale in which the seller does not buy shares to replace thosehe borrowed.

Specie: precious metal (usually gold or silver) used to back money.

Structural adjustment: a term used by the International MonetaryFund (IMF) for the changes it recommends for developing countriesthat want new loans, including internal changes (notably privatizationand deregulation) as well as external ones (especially the reduction ofbarriers to trade); a package of "free market" reforms designed tocreate economic growth to generate income to pay off accumulateddebt.

Tariff: a tax placed on imported or exported goods (sometimes calleda customs duty).

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Glossary

Tight money: insufficient money to go around, generally because themoney supply has been intentionally contracted by the financialestablishment.

Time deposits: deposits that the depositor knows are being lent out andthat he can't have back for a certain period of time.

Transaction deposit: a term used by the Federal Reserve for checkabledeposits (deposits on which checks can be drawn) and other accountsthat can be used directly as cash without withdrawal limits orrestrictions. They are also called demand deposits, since they can bewithdrawn on demand at any time without notice. Most checking andsavings accounts are demand deposits.

Trust: a combination of firms or corporations for the purpose ofreducing competition and controlling prices throughout a business oran industry.

Usury: the practice of lending money and charging the borrowerinterest, especially at an exorbitant or illegally high rate.

Uptick rule: the SEC rule requiring that a stock's price be higher thanits previous sale price before the stock may be sold short.

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SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY OF BOOKSAND SUGGESTED READING

Barber, Lucy, Marching on Washington: The Forging of an AmericanPolitical Tradition (University of California Press, 2004).

Chicago Federal Reserve, Modern Money Mechanics, originally pro-duced and distributed free by the Public Information Center of theFederal Reserve Bank of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, now available onthe Internet at http://landru.i-link-2.net/monques/mmm2.html.

De Fremery, Robert, Rights Vs. Privileges (San Anselmo, California:Provocative Press, undated).

Emry, Sheldon, Billions for the Bankers, Debts for the People (Phoe-nix, Arizona: America's Promise Broadcast, 1984), reproduced atwww.libertydollar.org.

Engdahl, William, A Century of War (New York: Paul & Co., 1993).

Franklin, Benjamin, The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin (DoverThrift Edition, 1996).

Gatto, John Taylor, The Underground History of American Education(Oxford, New York: Oxford Village Press, 2000-2001).

Gibson, Donald, Battling Wall Street: The Kennedy Presidency (NewYork: Sheridan Square Press, 1994).

Goodwin, Jason, Greenback (New York: Henry Holt & Co., LLC, 2003).

Greco, Thomas, Money and Debt: A Solution to the Global Debt Crisis(Tucson, Arizona, 1990).

Greco, Thomas, New Money for Healthy Communities (Tucson, Ari-zona, 1994).

Griffin, G. Edward, The Creature from Tekyll Island (Westlake Village,California: American Media, 1998).

487

Bibliography

Guttman, Robert, How Credit-Money Shapes the Economy (Armonk,New York: M. E. Sharpe, 1994).

Hoskins, Richard, War Cycles, Peace Cycles (Lynchburg, Virginia:Virginia Publishing Company, 1985).

Lietaer, Bernard, The Future of Money: Creating New Wealth, Workand a Wiser World (Century, 2001).

Patman, Wright, A Primer on Money (Government Printing Office,prepared for the Sub-committee on Domestic Finance, House of Rep-resentatives, Committee on Banking and Currency, Eighty-EighthCongress, 2nd session, 1964).

Perkins, John, Confessions of an Economic Hit Man (San Francisco:Berrett-Koehler Publishers, Inc., 2004).

Rothbard, Murray, Wall Street, Banks, and American Foreign Policy(Center for Libertarian Studies, 1995).

Rowbothan, Michael, Goodbye America! Globalisation, Debt and theDollar Empire (Charlbury, England: Jon Carpenter Publishing, 2000).

Rowbotham, Michael, The Grip of Death: A Study of Modern Money,Debt Slavery and Destructive Economics (Charlbury, Oxfordshire: JonCarpenter Publishing, 1998).

Schwantes, Carlos, Coxey's Army: An American Odyssey (Moscow,Idaho: University of Idaho Press, 1994).

Weatherford, Jack, The History of Money (New York: Crown Publish-ers, Inc., 1997).

Wiggin, Addison, The Demise of the Dollar ( Hoboken, New Jersey:John Wiley & Sons, 2005).

Zarlenga, Stephen, The Lost Science of Money (Valatie, New York:American Monetary Institute, 2002).

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Endnotes

Introduction

1. Hans Schicht, "The Death of Bankingand Macro Politics/' 321gold.com/editorials (February 9, 2005).

2. Carroll Quigley, Tragedy and Hope:A History of the World in our Time(New York: Macmillan Company,1966), page 324.

3. Quoted in U. Ibrahim-Morrison, etal., "Building Sound EconomicFoundations," Alarm Magazine (May1995).

4. Henry C K Liu, "The GlobalEconomy in Transition," Asia Times(September 16, 2003). For Liu's bio,see "The Complete Henry C K Liu,"Asia Times (May 11, 2007).

5. In the Foreword to Irving Fisher,100% Money (1935), reprinted byPickering and Chatto Ltd. (1996).

6. Quoted in "Someone Has to Print theNation's Money ... So Why Not OurGovernment?", Monetary ReformOnline, reprinted from VictoriaTimes Colonist (October 16, 1996).

7. Michel Chossudovsky, University ofOttawa, "Financial Warfare,"hartford-hwp.com (September 23,1998).

8. Michael Hodges, "America's TotalDebt Report," Grandfather EconomicReport, http://whodges.home.att.net(2006).

9. "Crumbling Nation? U.S. Infrastruc-ture Gets a 'D'", MSNBC.com (March9, 2005).

10. Victor Thorn, "Who Controls theFederal Reserve System?", rense.com(May 9, 2002).

11. Christopher Mark, "The GrandDeception: The Theft of America and

the World, Part III,"prisonplanet.com (March 15, 2003).

12. Murray Rothbard, "The Solution,"The Freeman (November 1995).

13. James Galbraith, "Self-fulfillingProphets: Inflated Zeal at the FederalReserve," The American Prospect(June 23,1994).

14. Anton Chaitkin, "How Henry Careyand the American Nationalists Buildthe Modern World," AmericanAlmanac (May 1977).

Chapter 1

1. Henry Littlefield, "The Wizard of Oz:Parable on Populism," AmericanQuarterly 16 (Spring, 1964), page 50,reprinted at amphigory.com/oz.htm.

2. H. Rockoff, "'The Wizard of Oz' as aMonetary Allegory," Journal ofPolitical Economy 98:739-60 (1990).See also Mark Lovewell, "YellowBrick Road: The Economics Behindthe Wizard of Oz," www.ryerson.ca/-lovewell/oz.html (2000); BillO'Rahilly, "Goodbye, Yellow BrickRoad," Financial Times (August 5,2003).

3. Tim Ziaukas, "100 Years of Oz:Baum's 'Wizard of Oz' as Gilded AgePublic Relations," Public RelationsQuarterly (Fall 1998).

4. David Parker, "The Rise and Fall ofThe Wonderful Wizard of Oz as a'Parable on Populism,'" Tournal ofthe Georgia Association of Histori-ans 15:49-63 (1995).

5. "Populism," Wikipedia (April 2006).

6. Lawrence Goodwin, paraphrased byPatricia Limerick in "The Future ofPopulist Politics" (speech at Colo-rado College, February 6, 1999).

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7. Gretchen Ritter, Goldbugs andGreenbacks: The AntimonopolyTradition and the Politics of Financein America, 1865-1896 (Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1997),pages 8-9; Carlos Schwantes, Coxey'sArmy (Moscow, Idaho: University ofIdaho Press, 1994); Neander97'sHistorical Trivia, "Militia ThreatensMarch on Washington!",geocities.com / Athens / Forum / 3807/features/hogan.html.

8. Texas State Historical Association,"Greenback Party," The Handbook ofTexas Online (December 4, 2002).

9. Official Proceedings of the Demo-cratic National Convention Held inChicago, Illinois, July 7, 8, 9,10, and11,1896 (Logansport, Indiana, 1896),pages 226-234, reprinted in TheAnnals of America, Vol. 12,1895-1904: Populism, Imperialism, andReform (Chicago: EncyclopediaBritannica, Inc., 1968), pages 100-105.

10. Jack Weatherford, The History ofMoney: From Sandstone toCyberspace (New York: Three RiversPress, 1998), page 176; John Corbally,"The Cross of Gold and the Wizardof Oz," The History of Money, http:// home .earthlink .net / ~jcorbally /eng218/rcross.html; Hugh Downs,"Odder than Oz," monetary.org(1998).

11. Wayne Slater interviewed in "KarlRove - the Architect," Frontline,www.pbs.org (April 12, 2005).

12. D. Parker, op. cit.

13. John Algeo, "A Notable Theoso-phist: L. Frank Baum," Journal of theTheosophical Society in America(September 4, 1892).

14. T. Ziaukas, op. cit.

15. J. Corbally, op. cit.; D. Parker, op. cit.

16. Murray Rothbard, Wall Street, Banks,and American Foreign Policy (Centerfor Libertarian Studies, 1995).

17. Robert Blumen, "The Organizationof Debt into Currency: On theMonetary Thought of Charles HoltCarroll," mises.org (April 27, 2006).

18. John Ascher, "RememberingPresident William McKinley,"schillerinstitute.org (September2001); Marcia Merry-Baker, et al.,"Henry Carey and WilliamMcKinley," American Almanac(1995), Sherman Skolnick, "WhatHappened to America'sGoldenboy?", skolnickreport.com.

19. Michael Rowbothan, GoodbyeAmerica! Globalisation, Debt and theDollar Empire (Charlbury, England:Jon Carpenter Publishing, 2000),page 104.

Chapter 2

1. Paul Sperry, "Greenspan: FinancialWizard of Oz," WorldNetDaily(2001).

2. Ibid.

3. Federal Reserve Bank of New York,"I Bet You Thought," page 186,quoted in G. Edward Griffin, TheCreature from Jekyll Island(Westlake Village, California:American Media, 1998), page 19.

4. See Lewis v. United States, 680 F.2d1239 (1982), in which a federal circuitcourt so held.

5. Wright Patman, A Primer on Money(Government Printing Office,prepared for the Sub-committee onDomestic Finance, House of Repre-sentatives, Committee on Bankingand Currency, Eighty-EighthCongress, 2nd session, 1964).

6. Quoted in Archibald Roberts, TheMost Secret Science (Fort Collins,Colorado: Betsy Ross Press, 1984).

7. Benjamin Gisin, "The Mechanics ofMoney: A Danger to Civilization,"American Monetary InstitutePresentation (Chicago, September2006).

490

8. "United States Mint 2004 AnnualReport/' usmint.gov.

9. "Money Supply/' Wikipedia(October 2006).

10. Chicago Federal Reserve, ModernMoney Mechanics (1963), originallyproduced and distributed free by thePublic Information Center of theFederal Reserve Bank of Chicago,Chicago, Illinois, now available onthe Internet at http://landru.i-link-2.net/monques/mmm2.html.

11. Chicago Federal Reserve, op. cit.;Patrick Carmack, Bill Still, TheMoney Masters: How InternationalBankers Gained Control of America(video, 1998), text at http://users.cyberone.com.au/ myers/money-masters.html; WilliamBramley, The Gods of Eden (NewYork: Avon Books, 1989), pages 214-29.

12. Robert de Fremery, "Arguments AreFallacious for World Central Bank,"The Commercial and FinancialChronicle (September 26, 1963),citing E. Groseclose, Money: TheHuman Conflict, pages 178-79.

13. "A Landmark Decision," The DailyEagle (Montgomery, Minnesota:February 7,1969), reprinted in part inP. Cook, "What Banks Don't WantYou to Know," www9.pair.com/xpoez/money/cook (June 3, 1993).

14. See Bill Drexler, "The MahoneyCredit River Decision,"worldnewsstand.net / money /mahoney-introduction.html.

15. G. Edward Griffin, "Debt-cancella-tion Programs,"freedomforceinternational.org(December 18, 2003).

16. William Hummel, "Non-banksVersus Banks," in Money: What It Is,How It Works, http://wfhummel.net(May 17, 2002).

17. See, e.g., California Civil CodeSection 1598: "Where a contract. . .[is] wholly impossible of

performance, . . . the entire contract isvoid."

18. Quoted in Stephen Zarlenga, TheLost Science of Money (Valatie, NewYork: American Monetary Institute,2002), pages 345-46.

19. Bernard Lietaer, interviewed bySarah van Gelder in "Beyond Greedand Scarcity," Yes! Magazine (Spring1997).

20. "Fed Injects $41 Billion in Liquid-ity," Wall Street Journal (November2, 2007); Ellen Brown, "MarketMeltdown," webofdebt.com/articles/ market-meltdown.php(September 3, 2007); E. Brown, "BankRun or Stealth Bailout," ibid.(September 29, 2007); NourielRoubini, "The Stealth Public Bailoutof Reckless 'Countrywide': Privatiz-ing Profits and Socializing Losses,"Nouriel Roubini's Global Monitor(November 27, 2007); Mike Whitney,"The Central Bank: Silent Partner inthe Bloodletting," Dissident Voice(December 8, 2007).

21. Quoted in G. E. Griffin, The Creaturefrom Tekyll Island (Westlake Village,California: American Media, 1998),pages 187-88.

22. Mark Stencel, "Budget Background:A Decade of Black Ink?",washingtonpost.com (February 2,2000); "The Presidential Facts Page,"The History Ring, scican.net/-dkochan; Robert Samuelson,"Rising Federal Debt Not Necessar-ily Negative," Washington PostWriters Group, in the Baton RougeAdvocate (October 9, 2003).

23. John K. Galbraith, Money: Whence ItCame, Where It Went (Boston:Houghton Mifflin, 1975), page 90.

24. Erik Sorensen, "Economic Never-never Land," republicons.org(January 17, 2003). (Assume 3 feetper step. One mile = 5,280 feet,multiplied by 4 billion miles = 21,120

491

billion feet, divided by 3 feet per step= 7,040 billion, or 7.04 trillion, steps.)

25. George Humphrey, Common Sense(Austin, Texas: George Humphrey,1998), page 5.

26. "Today's Boxscore," nationaldebt.org($25,725 debt per capita as of January7, 2005).

27. See "Confessions of a White HouseInsider", Time Magazine, time.com(January 19, 2004) (Vice PresidentDick Cheney citing President RonaldReagan for the proposition that"deficits don't matter").

28. See Chapter 29.

Chapter 3

1. Jason Goodwin, Greenback (NewYork: Henry Holt & Co., LLC, 2003),page 40.

2. H. A. Scott Trask, "Did the FramersFavor Hard Money?", lcwatch.com/special69.shtml (2002).

3. J. Goodwin, op. cit„ page 43.

4. Ibid.; Jack Weatherford, The Historyof Money (New York: CrownPublishers, Inc., 1997), pages 132-35.

5. Alvin Rabushka, "RepresentationWithout Taxation," Policy Review(Hoover Institution, StanfordUniversity, August/September 2002).

6. Quoted by Congressman CharlesBinderup in a 1941 speech, "HowAmerica Created Its Own Money in1750: How Benjamin Franklin MadeNew England Prosperous," reprintedin Unrobing the Ghosts of WallStreet, http://reactor core.org/america created money.html.

7. Ibid.; Carmack & Still, op. cit.;expanded quote in "Contango:Dollar Future?", http://thefountainhead.typepad.com (March16, 2006).

8. J. Goodwin, op. cit., pages 56-57.

9. Quoted in C. Binderup, op. cit.

10. Alexander Del Mar, History ofMonetary Systems (1895), quoted inS. Zarlenga, op. cit., page 378.

11. S. Zarlenga, op. cit., pages 377-78.

12. Ibid., pages 385-86.

13. J. W. Schuckers, Finances and PaperMoney of the Revolutionary War(Philadephia: J. Campbell & Son,1874), quoted in S. Zarlenga, op. cit,pages 380-81.

14. S. Zarlenga, op. cit., pages 377-87;Carmack and Still, The MoneyMasters, op. cit.

Chapter 4

1. Sheldon Emry, Billions for theBankers, Debts for the People(Phoenix, Arizona: America'sPromise Broadcast, 1984), reproducedat libertydollar.org.

2. James Newell, "Currency andFinance in the 18th Century," TheContinental Line (Fall 1997).

3. Alexander Hamilton, Works, Part II,page 271, quoted in G. EdwardGriffin, The Creature from TekyllIsland (Westlake Village, California:American Media, 1998), page 316.

4. Jason Goodwin, Greenback (NewYork: Henry Holt & Co., LLC, 2003),pages 95-115.

5. Vernon Parrington, Main Currents in

American Thought, Volume 1, Book3, Part 1, Chapter 3, "AlexanderHamilton" (1927); reprinted at http://xroads.virginia.edu/~HYPER/Parrington/voll /bk03_01_ch03 .html.

6. Lyndon LaRouche, "AlexanderHamilton," in Economics: The End ofa Delusion (Leesburg, Virginia,2002), pages 82-83.

492

7. "American Vs. British System/' ibid.,page 42.

8. }. Goodwin, op. cit., page 109.

9. Stephen Zarlenga, The Lost Science ofMoney (Valatie, New York: Ameri-can Monetary Institute, 2002), pages405-08.

10. J. Goodwin, op. cit.

11 .Quoted in S. Zarlenga, op. cit., page408.

12. Steven O'Brien, Hamilton (NewYork: Chelsea House Publishers,1989), page 66.

13. Anton Chaitkin, "The LincolnRevolution," Fidelio Magazine(spring 1998); David Rivera, FinalWarning (1997), republished atsilverbearcafe.com.

Chapter 5

1. Bernard Lietaer, The Mystery ofMoney (Munich, Germany: RiemannVerlag, 2000), pages 33-44.

2. Michael Hudson, "Reconstructing theOrigins of Interest-bearing Debt," inDebt and Economic Renewal in theAncient Near East (CDL Press, 2002).

3. B. Lietaer, op. cit., pages 48-49.

4. Richard Hoskins, War Cycles, PeaceCycles (Lynchburg, Virginia:Virginia Publishing Company, 1985),page 2.

5. Peter Vogelsang, et al., "Anti-

semitism," Holocaust Education,www.holocaust-education.dk (2002).

6. Patrick Carmack, Bill Still, TheMoney Masters: How InternationalBankers Gained Control of America(video, 1998), text at http://users.cyberone.com.au / myers /money-masters.html.

7. Aristotle, Ethics 1133.

8. M. T. Clanchy, From Memory toWritten Record, England 1066-1307(Cambridge, Mass., 1979), page 96;

see also page 95, n. 28, pi. VIII.

9. Dave Birch, "Tallies & Technologies,"Tournal of Internet Banking andCommerce, arraydev.com; "TallySticks," http://

yamaguchy.netfirms.com/astle_d/tally_3.html; Carmack & Still, op. cit.;"Tally Sticks," National Archives,nationalarchives.gov.uk (November7, 2005).

10. R. Hoskins, op. cit., page 39.

11. S. Zarlenga, op. cit., page 253, citingPeter Spufford, Money and Its Use inMedieval Europe (CambridgeUniversity Press, 1988,1993), pages83-93.

12. R. Hoskins, op. cit., pages 37-45, 59-61.

13. James Walsh, The Thirteenth:Greatest of Centuries (New York:Catholic Summer School Press, 1907),chapter 1.

14. Poverty and Pauperism," CatholicEncyclopedia, online edition,newadvent.org. (2003).

15. R. Hoskins, op. cit, pages 37-45, 59-61.

Chapter 6

1. Patrick Carmack, Bill Still, TheMoney Masters: How InternationalBankers Gained Control of America(video, 1998), text at http:/ /users.cyberone.com.au/myers/money-masters.html.

2. Ibid.; Richard Hoskins, War Cycles,Peace Cycles (Lynchburg, Virginia:Virginia Publishing Company, 1985).

3. Stephen Zarlenga, The Lost Science ofMoney (Valatie, New York: Ameri-can Monetary Institute, 2002), pages266-69.

4. Carmack & Still, op. cit.

5. Ibid.

6. J. Lawrence Broz, et al., Paying forPrivilege: The Political Economy of

493

Bank of England Charters, 1694-1844(January 2002), page 11,econ.barnard.columbia.edu.

7. Herbert Dorsey, "The HistoricalInfluence of International Banking,"http://usa-the-republic.com; EdGriffin, The Creature from lekyllIsland (American Media: WestlakeVillage, California, 2002), pages 175-77; "Bank Charter Act 1844,"Wikipedia; Eustace Mullins, Secretsof the Federal Reserve (1985), chapter5, reprinted at barefootsworld.net.

8. S. Zarlenga, op. cit., page 228.

9. E. Griffin, op. cit.

10. J. Lawrence Broz, Richard Grossman,"Paying for Privilege: The PoliticalEconomy of Bank of EnglandCharters, 1694-1844,"econ.barnard.columbia.edu(Weatherhead Center for Interna-tional Affairs, Harvard University,January 2002).

11. Thomas Rue, "Nine MillionWitches?", Harvest ll(3):19-20(February 1991).

12. "Tally Sticks," op. cit.; R. Hoskins,op. cit.

13. Jack Weatherford, The History ofMoney (New York: Three RiversPress, 1998), pages 130-32.

14. See Chapter 17.

Chapter 7

1. Charles Conant, A History of ModernBanks of Issue (New York: Putnam,1909), quoted in Stephen Zarlenga,The Lost Science of Money (Valatie,New York: American MonetaryInstitute, 2002), page 413.

2. Gustavus Myers, History of the GreatAmerican Fortunes (New York:Random House, 1936), page 556,quoted in G. Edward Griffin, TheCreature from lekyll Island(Westlake Village, California:American Media, 1998), page 331.

3. G. E. Griffin, op. cit., pages 226-27;Patrick Carmack, Bill Still, TheMoney Masters: How InternationalBankers Gained Control of America(video, 1998), text at http://users.cyberone.com.au/myers/money-masters.html.

4. Carmack & Still, ibid.

5. Quoted in S. Zarlenga, op. cit., page411.

6. Ibid., pages 410-13.

7. Thomas Jefferson, The Writings ofThomas Jefferson, Memorial Edition(Lipscomb and Bergh, editors,Washington, D.C., 1903-04), volume15, pages 40-41.

8. S. Zarlenga, op. cit., page 416.

9. G. E. Griffin, op. cit., page 352.

10. Carmack & Still, op. cit.

11. Ibid.; David Rivera, Final Warning(1997), republished atsilverbearcafe.com.

Chapter 8

1. Anton Chaitkin, "Abraham Lincoln's'Bank War'," Executive IntelligenceReview (May 30, 1986).

2. "Abraham Lincoln," "RepublicanParty," "Whig Party," Wikipedia.

3. Ibid.; the Adelphi Organization,"Profiles of Famous Brothers,"adelphi.com.

4. Patrick Carmack, Bill Still, TheMoney Masters: How InternationalBankers Gained Control of America(video, 1998), text at http://users.cyberone .com.au/ myers /money-masters.html.

5. Vernon Parrington, Vol. 3, Bk. I,Chap. Ill, "Changing Theory: HenryCarey," Main Currents in AmericanThought (1927).

6. Anton Chaitkin, "The 'AmericanSystem' in Russia, China, Germanyand Japan: How Henry Carey and theAmerican Nationalists Built the

494

Modern World/' American Almanac(May 1997).

7. Irwin Unger, The Greenback Era(Princeton University Press, 1964),quoted in Stephen Zarlenga, The LostScience of Money (Valatie, NewYork: American Monetary Institute,2002, page 464.

8. J. G. Randall The Civil War andReconstruction (Boston: Heath & Co.,1937, 2d edition 1961), pages 3-11,quoted in S. Zarlenga, op. cit.

9. S. Zarlenga, op. cit., pages 455-66.

10. Bob Blain, "The Other Way to Dealwith the National Debt," TheProgressive Review (June 1994).

Chapter 9

1. Quoted by Conrad Siem in La VieilleFrance 216:13-16 (March 17-24,1921);see G. Edward Griffin, The Creaturefrom lekyll Island (Westlake Village,California: American Media, 1998),page 374; Patrick Carmack, Bill Still,The Money Masters: How Interna-tional Bankers Gained Control ofAmerica (video, 1998), text at http://users.cyberone.com.au / myers /money-masters.html.

2. "Hazard Circular," 1862, quoted inCharles Lindburgh, Banking andCurrency and the Money Trust(Washington D.C.: National CapitalPress, 1913), page 102.

3. Quoted in Rob Kirby, "Dead Presi-dents' Society," financialsense.com(February 6, 2007), and many othersources.

4. Quoted in C. Siem, op. cit.

5. Quoted in Robert Owen, NationalEconomy and the Banking System(Washington D.C.: U.S. GovernmentPrinting Office, 1939).

6. Samuel P. Chase, "National BankingSystem," Gilder Lehrman Institute ofAmerican History, Document

Number: GLC1574.01 (1863),gilderlehrman.org; S. Zarlenga, o_p_.cit., pages 467-71; G. E. Griffin, op.cit., pages 386-88.

7. Stephen Zarlenga, The Lost Scienceof Money (Valatie, New York:American Monetary Institute, 2002),page 469, quoting Davis RichDewey, Financial History of theUnited States (New York: LongmansGreen, 1903).

8. Sarah Emery, Seven FinancialConspiracies Which Have Enslavedthe American People (Lansing,Michigan: R. Smith, revised edition1894), chapter X.

9. David Rivera, Final Warning (1997),republished at silverbearcafe.com.

10. Texas State Historical Association,"Greenback Party," The Handbookof Texas Online (December 4, 2002).

Chapter 10

1. Vernon Parrington, Vol. 3, Bk. 2,"The Old and New: Storm Clouds,"Main Currents in American Thought(Harbinger, 1958; originallypublished inl927), http://

xroads .virginia.edu / -HYPER /Parrington/vo!3 /bk02_01_ch01.html..

2. Henry C. K. Liu, "Banking Bunkum,Part 1: Monetary Theology," AsiaTimes (November 2, 2002).

3. Keith Bradsher, "From the Silk Roadto the Superhighway, All CoinLeads to China," The New YorkTimes (February 26, 2006).

4. "Real Bills Doctrine,"wikipedia.org.

5. Bob Blain, "The Other Way to Dealwith the National Debt," Progres-sive Review (June 1994).

6. David Kidd, "How Money Is Createdin Australia," http://dkd.net/davekidd/politics/money.html

495

(2001); Michael Rowbotham,Goodbye America! Globalisation,Debt and the Dollar Empire(Charlbury, England: Jon CarpenterPublishing, 2000), pagesl88-89.

7. Eleazar Lord, National Currency: AReview of the National Banking Law(New York: 1863), page 8.

8. Thomas Greco Jr., Money and Debt: ASolution to the Global Debt Crisis(Tucson, Arizona, 1990), page 5.

9. Letter to Col. William F. Elkins,November 21, 1864, The LincolnEncyclopedia (New York: Macmillan,1950).

10. Thomas DiLorenzo, "Fake LincolnQuotes," lewrockwell.com (2002).

11. Professor James Petras, "Who RulesAmerica?", Global Research (January13, 2007).

Chapter 11

1. Quoted in The Federal Observer 4:172(June 21, 2004), federalobserver.org.

2. Arundhati Roy, "Public Power in theAge of Empire," address to theAmerican Sociological Association inSan Francisco, democracynow.org(August 16, 2004).

3. Joe Lockard, et al., "Bad SubjectsInterviews Howard Zinn," BadSubjects: Political Education forEveryday Life , http://eserver.org/editors/2001-1-31.html (January 31,2001).

4. Carlos Schwantes, Coxey's Army(Moscow, Idaho: University of IdahoPress, 1994), page 37.

5. "In Our Own Image: Teaching IraqHow to Deal with Protest,"pressaction.com (October 3, 2003).

6. Lucy Barber, Marching on Washing-ton: The Forging of an American

Political Tradition (University ofCalifornia Press, 2004).

7. Jacob Coxey, "'Address of Protest' onthe Steps of the Capitol," from TheCongressional Record, 53rd Con-gress, 2nd Session (May 9,1894), page4512.

8. L. Barber, op. cit., chapter 1.

9. "Militia Threatens March on Wash-ington!", geocities.com/Athens/Forum/3807/features/hogan.html;"Coxey's Army," Reader's Compan-ion to American History,college.hmco.com.

10. "In Our Own Image," op. cit.

11. Benjamin Dangl, "Lawyers, Guns andMoney: IMF/World Bank Celebrate60 Years of Infamy," Indymedia(April 28,2004).

12. Russ John, "Monte Ne," ArkansasTravelogue (February 1, 2002).

13. John Ascher, "RememberingPresident William McKinley,"schillerinstitute.org (September2001); Marcia Merry-Baker, et al.,"Henry Carey and WilliamMcKinley," American Almanac(1995); Sherman Skolnick, "WhatHappened to America'sGoldenboy?", skolnickreport.com.

14. Murray Rothbard, Wall Street, Banks,and American Foreign Policy (Centerfor Libertarian Studies, 1995).

Chapter 12

1. "Woodrow Wilson: The VisionaryPresident," http://home.att.net/-jrhsc/wilson.html.

2. "Daniel Inouye," Wikipedia (Novem-ber 2004).

3. Quoted in Peaceful RevolutionaryNetwork, "The History of MoneyPart 3," xat.org (August 2003).

496

4. Matthew Josephson, The RobberBarons (New York: Harcourt Brace &Co., 1934).

5. Steve Kangas, "Monopolies,"Liberalism Resurgent, http://mirrors.korpios.org/resurgent/L-ausmon.htm (1996); Ron Chernow,Titan: The Life of John D. RockefellerSr. (Random House, 1998).

6. Steve Kangas, "Myth: The GoldStandard Is a Better MonetarySystem," The Long FAQ onLiberalism, huppi.com/kangaroo/L-gold.htm (1996).

7. Steve Kangas, "Monopolies," op. cit.;Donald Miller, "Capital and Labor:John Pierpont Morgan and theAmerican Corporation," A Biogra-phy of America, learner.org; JohnMoody, The Truth about the Trusts(New York: Moody Publishing,1904); Carroll Quigley, Tragedy andHope (New York: MacMillanCompany, 1966).

8. Sam Natapoff, "Rogue Whale," TheAmerican Prospect vol. 15, issue 3(March 1, 2004).

9. "Federal Reserve," Liberty Nation,libertynation.org (2002).

10. G. Edward Griffin, The Creaturefrom Jekyll Island (Westlake Village,California: American Media, 1998),pages 408-17, quoting GeorgeWheeler, Pierpont Morgan andFriends: The Anatomy of a Myth(Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey:Prentice Hall, 1973).

11. David Rivera, Final Warning (1997),republished at silverbearcafe.com.

12. Leon Kilkenny, "Rome, Rockefeller,the U.S., and Standard Oil,"reformation.org/rockefeller.html(April 5, 2003).

13. Dr. Peter Lindemann, "Where in theWorld Is All the Free Energy?"Nexus Magazine (vol. 8, no. 4), June-

July 2001.

14. Quoted in Marc Seifer, "Confessionsof a Tesla Nerd," netsense.net/tesla/article2.html (Feb. 1, 1997).

Chapter 13

1. Frank Vanderlip, From Farm Boy toFinancier, quoted in "The Great U.$.Fraud," iresist.com (August 8, 2002).

2. "The Roadshow of Deception,"World Newsstand,wealth4freedom.com (1999).

3. "Who Was Philander Knox?",worldnewsstand.net/history /PhilanderKnox.htm. (1999).

4. Patrick Carmack, Bill Still, TheMoney Masters: How InternationalBankers Gained Control of America(video, 1998), text at http://users.cyberone.com.au/myers/money-masters.html.

5. Jon Christian Ryter, "When theInvisible Power Chooses to be Seen,"NewsWithViews.com (August 16,2006); Murray Rothbard, Wall Street,Banks, and American Foreign Policy(Center for Libertarian Studies, 1995);G. Edward Griffin, The Creaturefrom Jekyll Island (Westlake Village,California: American Media, 1998),pages 239-40.

6. G. E. Griffin, op. cit., pages 465-68.

7. E. Germain, "Truth in History —World War I," Southern Heritage,johnnyreb 22553.tripod.com/southernheritage/id45.html; O.Skinner, "Who Worded the 16thAmendment?", The Best Kept Secret,ottoskinner .com. (2002).

8. Congressman McFadden on theFederal Reserve Corporation,Remarks in Congress, 1934 (Boston:Forum Publishing Co.), includingexcerpts from Congressional Record1932, pages 12595-96.

9. See Lewis v. United States, 680 F.2d

497

1239 (1982), in which a federal circuitcourt so held.

10. Sam Natapoff, "Rogue Whale," TheAmerican Prospect, vol. 15, issue 3(March 1, 2004).

11. Stephen Zarlenga, The Lost Scienceof Money (Valatie, New York:American Monetary Institute, 2002),page 536; G. E. Griffin, op. cit., page423.

12. Edward Flaherty, "Myth #5: TheFederal Reserve Is Owned andControlled by Foreigners,"geocities .com/ CapitolHill / Senate /3616/flaherty5.html.

13. Hans Schicht, "Financial SpiderWebbing," gold-eagle.com (February27, 2004).

14. Ibid.; Hans Schicht, "From a Differ-ent Perspective," gold-eagle.comguly 7, 2003); Hans Schicht, "TheMerchants of Debt," gold-eagle.com(July 25, 2001).

15. See Eric Samuelson, J.D., "The U.S.Council on Foreign Relations,"sweetliberty.org (2001).

16. Jim Cornwell, "The New WorldOrder," chapter 7, The Alpha and theOmega (1995), mazzaroth.com.

17. Pepe Escobar, "The Masters of theUniverse," Asia Times (May 22,2003).

18. Congressional Record, SecondSession, Sixty-Fourth Congress,Volume LIV, page 2947, "Remarks,"Oscar Callaway (February 9,1917).

19. Norman Solomon, "Break upMicrosoft? . . . Then How About theMedia 'Big Six?,'" The Free Press(April 27, 2000).

20. John Taylor Gatto, The UndergroundHistory of American Education(Oxford, New York: Oxford VillagePress, 2000-2001).

21. Joe Lockard, et al., "Bad SubjectsInterviews Howard Zinn," Bad

Subjects: Political Education forEveryday Life , http://eserver.org/editors/2001-l-31.html (January 31,2001).

22. "Who Was Philander Knox?", op. cit.

Chapter 14

1. "A Fairy Tale of Taxation," AmericanPatriot Network, civil-liberties.com/pages/taxationtale.htm (June 24,2000); see Kevin Bonsor, "HowIncome Taxes Work: Establishing aFederal Income Tax," http://money.howstuffworks.com/income-taxl.htm.

2. Citizens for Tax Justice, "Less ThanZero: Enron's Income Tax Payments,1996-2000," ctj.org (January 17, 2002).

3. "Origins of the Income Tax,"

fairtax.org; Sen. Richard Lugar, "MyPlan to End the Income Tax,"remarks delivered April 5, 1995,CATO Money Report, cato.org.

4. Brushaber v. Union Pacific Railroad,240 U.S. 1,7(1916).

5. "A Fairy Tale of Taxation," op. cit.

6. Ibid.

7. Congressman John Linder, "Become aVoluntary Taxpayer," Americans forFair Taxation, fairtaxvolunteer.org(June 2, 2001).

8. Bill Benson, "The Law That NeverWas - The Fraud of Income andSocial Security Tax,"thelawthatneverwas.com; BillBranscum, "Marvin D. Miller's'Reliance' on Benson (1989),"fraudsandscams.com (2003).

9. "Who Was Philander Knox?",worldnewsstand.net / history /PhilanderKnox.htm. (1999).

10. National Debt Awareness Center,"Federal Budget Spending and theNational Debt," federalbudget.com(October 20, 2005); Joint Statement. . .on Budget Results for Fiscal Year

498

2005/' treas.gov (October 14, 2005).

11. President's Private Sector Survey onCost Control: A Report to thePresident (vol. 1), approved by theExecutive Committee at its meetingon January 15,1984; reprinted atuhuh.com/taxstuff/gracecom.htm.

Chapter 15

1. Stanley Schultz, "Crashing Hopes:The Great Depression," AmericanHistory 102: Civil War to the Present(University of Wisconsin 1999),http: / / us.history. wise .edu/ histl02 /lectures / lecturel8 .html.

2. Albert Burns, "Born Under a BadSign: The Roots of the 'Great Depres-sion/" sianews.com (October 14,2003).

3. Lester Chandler, Benjamin Strong,Central Banker (Washington:Brookings, 1958), quoted in StephenZarlenga, The Lost Science of Money(Valatie, New York: AmericanMonetary Institute, 2002), page 541.

4. Carroll Quigley, Tragedy and Hope:A History of the World in our Time(New York: Macmillan Company,1966), page 326, quoted in G. EdwardGriffin, The Creature from TekyllIsland (Westlake Village, California:American Media, 1998), page 424.

5. G. E. Griffin, op. cit„ pages 423-26,502-03.

6. S. Zarlenga, op. cit„ pages 546-48.

7. G. E. Griffin, op. cit, pages 49-50.

8. "On the Side of Golden Angels,"gold-eagle.com (September 8, 1977).

9. Congressman McFadden on theFederal Reserve Corporation,Remarks in Congress, 1934 (Boston:Forum Publishing Co.), includingexcerpts from Congressional Record1932, pages 12595-96.

10. Quoted in The Federal Observer4:172 (June 21, 2004),federalobserver.org. See "TheBankers' Manifesto and SustainableDevelopment," afn.org/~govern/safe.html (June 9,1998).

11. "Profile of the Farmer-Labor Party,"Buttons and Ballots (July 1997),reprinted at msys.net.

12. "Massillon's J.S. Coxey Led FirstMarch on D.C.," The Enquirer(Cincinnati), April 16, 2003; "JacobCoxey," spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk.

13. Lucy Barber, Marching on Washing-ton: The Forging of an AmericanPolitical Tradition (University ofCalifornia Press, 2004); "JacobCoxey," spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk.

14. Russ John, "Monte Ne," ArkansasTravelogue (February 1, 2002).

Chapter 16

1. Lyndon LaRouche, "Economics: TheEnd of a Delusion (Leesburg,Virginia, April 2002).

2. Charles Walters, "Parity andProfits," Wise Traditions in Food,Farming and the Healing Arts(Spring 2001), westonaprice.org;Marcia Baker, Christine Craig,"From Food Shocks to Famine,"Executive Intelligence Review (June7, 2007).

3. Stephen Zarlenga, The Lost Science ofMoney (Valatie, New York: Ameri-can Monetary Institute, 2002), page554.

4. G. Edward Griffin, The Creature fromTekyll Island (Westlake Village,California: American Media, 1998),page 142, citing Murray Rothbard,What Has Government Done to OurMoney? (Larkspur, Colorado: PineTree Press, 1964), page 13.

499

5. "John Maynard Keynes/' Time(March 29,1999); Steve Kangas, "ABrief Review of Keynesian Theory/'Liberalism Resurgent, http://home.att.net/~Resurgence/L-chikeynes.htm.

6. Henry C. K. Liu, "Banking Bunkum,Part V. Monetary Theology," AsiaTimes (November 6, 2002), citingJohn Maynard Keynes, GeneralTheory (1936).

7. "Roosevelt, the Deficit and the NewDeal," Land and Freedom (resourcesfor high school teachers),landandfreedom.org; Jim Powell"How FDR's New Deal HarmedMillions of Poor People," The CatoInstitute, cato.org (December 29,2003).

8. Federal Reserve Statistical Release(October 23, 2003), federalreserve.gov / releases / H6/ hist/ h6 his tl. txt;Jonathan Nicholson, "U.S. NationalDebt Tops $7 Trillion for First Time,"Reuters (February 18, 2004).

9. Cliff Potts, "The American Dollar,"USAFWZ (radio), geocities.com/usafwz/ dollar.html (November 1,2003).

10. Robert Hemphill, "Sound Money"(March 17,1934), quoted by LouisMcFadden in "A Call for Impeach-ment" presented to Congress May 23,1933, quoted in James Montgomery,A Country Defeated in Victory, PartIII," biblebelievers.org.au.

11. Quoted in J. Montgomery, ibid.

12. S. Zarlenga, op. cit., pages 560-61.

13. Ed Steer, "Who Owns the FederalReserve?", financialsense.com(October 14, 2004).

14. Dr. Edwin Vieira, "A New GoldSeizure: Possibility or Paranoia?",newswithviews.com (March 2, 2006).

15. Bill O'Rahilly, "Goodbye, YellowBrick Road," Financial Times (August5, 2003).

16. Congressman McFadden on theFederal Reserve Corporation,Remarks in Congress, 1934 (Boston:Forum Publishing Co.), includingexcerpts from Congressional Record1932, pages 12595-96.

17. Jackson Lears, "A History of theWorld According to Wall Street: TheMagicians of Money," New RepublicOnline (June 20, 2005).

18. Smedley Butler, War Is a Racket (LosAngeles: Feral House, 1939, 2003);The History Channel, "America'sHidden History: The Plot to Over-throw FDR,"

informationclearinghouse.info;Lonnie Wolfe, "The Morgan-BritishFascist Coup Against FDR," Ameri-can Almanac (February 1999).

19. S. Zarlenga, op. cit., page 561.

20. R. Edmondson, "Attacks onMcFadden's Life Reported," Pelley'sWeekly (October 14, 1936).

Chapter 17

1. Book review of Wright Patman:Populism, Liberalism, and theAmerican Dream by Nancy Young(Southern Methodist UniversityPress, 2000) in Journal of AmericanHistory 90:1, historycooperative.org.

2. Ibid.

3. Quoted in Archibald Roberts, TheMost Secret Science (Fort Collins,Colorado: Betsy Ross Press, 1984).

4. Edward Flaherty, "Myth #7: TheFederal Reserve Charges Interest onthe Currency We Use,"geocities.com/CapitolHill/Senate/3616/flaherty7.html.

5. Wright Patman, A Primer on Money(Government Printing Office,prepared for the Sub-committee onDomestic Finance, House of Repre-sentatives, Committee on Bankingand Currency, 88th Congress, 2ndsession, 1964), chapter 3.

500

6. Jerry Voorhis, The Strange Case ofRichard Milhous Nixon (New York:S. Eriksonlnc, 1972).

7. Peter White, "The Power of Money/'National Geographic (January 1993),pages 83-86.

8. J. Voorhis, op. cit.

9. E. Flaherty, op. cit.

10. Murray Rothbard, The Case Againstthe Fed (1994). See also Chapter 2.

11. "United States Debt," Wikipedia.

12. G. Edward Griffin, The Creaturefrom Tekyll Island (Westlake Village,California: American Media, 1998),pages 192-93.

13. Federal Reserve Bank of New York,"Reserve Requirements," ny.frb.org/aboutthefed/fedpoint/fed45.html(June 2004).

14. "Savings Account," Wikipedia.

15. E. Flaherty, op. cit.

16. Board of Governors of the FederalReserve System, Annual Report; seeE. Flaherty, op. cit.

17. The Federal Banking Agency AuditAct of 1978.

18Wright Patman, "Money Facts,"Supplement to a Primer on Money(88th Congress, 2nd Session 1964);Stephen Zarlenga, The Lost Science ofMoney (Valatie, New York: Ameri-can Monetary Institute, 2002), page673.

Chapter 18

1. Chicago Federal Reserve, ModernMoney Mechanics (1963), originallyproduced and distributed free by thePublic Information Center of theFederal Reserve Bank of Chicago,Chicago, Illinois, now available onthe Internet at http://landru.i-link-2.net/ monques / mmm2.html.

2. William Hummel, "The Myth of theMoney Multiplier," in Money: What

It Is, How It Works, http://wfhummel.net (March 17, 2004).

3. W. Hummel, "Bank Lending andReserves," ibid. (June 23, 2004).

4. Murray Rothbard, "FractionalReserve Banking," The Freeman(October 1995), reprinted onlewrockwell.com.

5. Carmen Pirritano, "Money & Myths"(May 1993), http://69.69.245.68/money/debate06.htm.

6. Kevin LaRoche, "Investment Banksand Commercial Banks Are Analo-gous to Oil and Water: They Just DoNot Mix," Boston University,bu.edu/econ/faculty.

7. Kate Kelly, "How Goldman Won Bigon Mortgage Meltdown," Wall StreetTournal (December 14, 2007).

8. Emily Thornton, "Inside Wall Street'sCulture of Risk: Investment BanksAre Placing Bigger Bets than Everand Beating the Odds - at Least forNow," BusinessWeek.com (Junel2,2006).

9. Sean Corrigan, "Speculation in theLate Empire," LewRockwell.com(January 14, 2006).

10. Barry's Bulls Newsletter, "ThoseBond Bums," Barron's Online (June30,2006).

Chapter 19

1. Richard Geist, "New Short SellingRegulations," Bull & Bear FinancialReport (March 4, 2004).

2. David Knight, "Short Selling =Counterfeiting?",www.marketocracy.com (2005).

3. Bob Drummond, "Corporate VotingCharade," Bloomberg Markets (April2006).

4. Daniel Kadlec, "Watch Out, They Bite!How Hedge Funds Tied to EmbattledBroker Refco Used 'Naked ShortSelling' to Plunder SmallCompanies," Time (November 6,2005).

501

5. Judith Burns, "SEC Proposes BarringRestrictions on Stock Transfers,"Dow Tones Newswires (May 26,2004).

6. "Short Selling," Wikipedia (August31,2006).

7. In Karl Thiel, "The Naked Truth onIllegal Shorting," The Motley Fool,fool.com (March 24, 2005).

8. Securities and Exchange Commssion,17 CFR parts 240 and 242, July 3,2007; sec.gov/rules/final/2007/34-55970.pdf.

9. "Stockgate: DTCC Sued Again,"Investors Business Daily,investors.com (July 28, 2004).

10. Mark Faulk, "Faulking TruthRecommends Abolishing the SEC,"faulkingtruth.com (April 27, 2006).

11. Patrick Byrne, "The Darkside of theLooking Glass: The Corruption ofOur Capital Markets,"businessjive.com/nss/darkside.html(2004-05).

12. Warren Buffett, "Avoiding a 'Mega-catastrophe': Derivatives AreFinancial Weapons of Mass Destruc-tion," Fortune (March 3, 2003).

Chapter 20

1. Bob Chapman, "The DerivativesMess," International Forecaster(November 11, 1998), reprinted inusagold.com (November 2005)(editor's note).

2. Robert Milroy, Standard & Poor'sGuide to Offshore Investment Funds28 (2000); David Chapman, "Deriva-tives Disaster, Hedge Fund Mon-sters?", gold-eagle.com (November11,2005).

3. Richard Freeman, "London's CaymanIslands: The Empire of the HedgeFunds," Executive IntelligenceReview (March 9, 2007).

4. Christopher White, "How to Bringthe Cancerous Derivatives MarketUnder Control," American Almanac(September 6, 1993); R. Colt BagleyIII, "Update: Record DerivativesGrowth Ups System Risk,"moneyfiles.org/specialgata04.html(July 29,2004), reprinted fromLeMetropoleCafe.

5. See Gary Novak, "DerivativesCreating Global Economic Col-lapse," http://nov55.com/economy.html (June 30, 2006).

6. Interview of John Hoefle, "HedgeFund Rescue, and What to Do withthe Blow Out of the Bubble?," EIRTalks (October 2,1998).

7. Martin Weiss, Global Vesuvius: $285Trillion in Very High-risk Debts andBets!," Safe Money Report (Novem-ber 2006); Hamish Risk, "DerivativeTrades Jump 27% to Record $681Trillion," bloomberg.com (December10, 2007).

8. Thomas Kostigen, "SophisticatedInvestor: Derivative Danger,"MarketWatch (September 26, 2006).See also Ari Weinberg, "The GreatDerivatives Smackdown,"forbes.com (May 9, 2003); MichaelEdward, "Cooking the Books Part II -US $71 Trillion Casino Banks,"rense.com (March 27, 2004).

9. G. Novak, op. cit.

10. Christopher White, TestimonySubmitted on April 13,1994 to theHouse Committee on Banking,Finance and Urban Affairs, "TheMonetary System Is Collapsing," TheNew Federalist (May 30,1994).

11. M. Weiss, op. cit.

12. C. White, op. cit.

13. IMF Research Department Staff,"Capital Flow Sustainability andSpeculative Currency Attacks,"worldbank.org (November 12, 1997).

502

14. "A Hitchhiker's Guide to HedgeFunds/' The Economist (June 13,1998).

15. George Soros, The Crisis of GlobalCapitalism, excerpted in NewsweekInternational (February 1, 1999).

16. "Credit Derivatives Led by Too FewBanks, Fitch Says," Bloomberg.com(November 18, 2005).

17. John Hoefle, "EIR Testimony ScoredScorched-Earth Looters," ExecutiveIntelligence Review (May 27, 2005).

18. Michael Rowbotham, "How toCancel Third World Debt," inGoodbye America! Globalisation,Debt and the Dollar Empire(Charlbury, England: Jon CarpenterPublishing, 2000). See also G.Edward Griffin, The Creature fromJekyll Island (Westlake Village,California: American Media, 1998),page 27.

19. See Chapter 31.

20. Sean Corrigan, "Speculation in theLate Empire," LewRockwell.com(January 14, 2006).

21. Quoted in "History of Money,"www.xat.org.

22. See Introduction.

Chapter 21

1. Donald Gibson, Battling Wall Street:The Kennedy Presidency (New York:Sheridan Square Press, 1994), pages41 and 79, and chapter 6.

2. Compare Melvin Sickler, "AbrahamLincoln and John F. Kennedy: TwoGreat Presidents Assassinated for theCause of Justice," prolognet.qc.ca/clyde/pres.htm; and G. EdwardGriffin, "Updates to Creature: TheJFK Myth," realityzone.com/creatup.html (2000).

3. "What Is the History of Gold andSilver Use?," jaredstory.com; KelleyRoss, "Six Kinds of United States

Paper Currency," friesian.com/notes.htm#us (1997).

4. See, e.g., "JFK Assassination,"geocities.com/

northstarzone.JFK.html; M. Sickler,op. cit.

5. David Ruppe, "Book: U.S. MilitaryDrafted Plans to Terrorize U.S. Citiesto Provoke War With Cuba," ABCNews (November 7, 2001),abcnews.com, reviewing FriendlyFire by James Bramford; see also"JFK Assassination,"op. cit.

6. William Engdahl, "A New AmericanCentury? Iraq and the Hidden Euro-dollar Wars," Current Concerns(November 1, 2003).

7. Henry C K Liu, "The Wages of Neo-Liberalism, Part 1: Core Contradic-tions," Asia Times (March 22, 2006);Stephen Zarlenga, The Lost Science ofMoney (Valatie, New York: Ameri-can Monetary Institute, 2002), chapter22.

8. Hans Schicht, "Financial SpiderWebbing," gold-eagle.com (February25,2004).

9. Joan Veon, "Does the GlobalEconomy Need a Global Currency?",NewsWithViews.com (August 16,

2003) ; William Engdahl, A Centuryof War (New York: Paul & Co., 1993);Antal Fekete, "Where FriedmanWent Wrong," lemetropolecafe.com(December 1, 2006).

10. Antal Fekete, "Dollar, My Foot,"Asia Times (May 28, 2005).

11. J. Veon, op. cit.

12. M. Rowbotham, op. cit., pages 77-84;Bernard Lietaer, "The Terra TRCWhite Paper," terratrc.org.

13. John Perkins, Confessions of anEconomic Hit Man, (San Francisco:Berrett-Koehler Publishers, Inc.,

2004) , page 91; W. Engdahl, ACentury of War, op. cit., pages 135-39.

503

14. Michael Rowbothan, GoodbyeAmerica! Globalisation, Debt and theDollar Empire (Charlbury, England:Jon Carpenter Publishing, 2000),pages 79-80.

15. Bernard Lietaer, The Future ofMoney: Creating New Wealth, Work,and a Wiser World (Century, 2001).

16. Robert Schenk, "Fixed ExchangeRates/' Cyber-Economics,ingrimayne.com (April 2006).

17. Henry C. K. Liu, "China, Part 2:Tequila Trap Beckons China," AsiaTimes (November 6, 2004).

18. G. Edward Griffin, The Creaturefrom Tekyll Island (Westlake Village,California: American Media, 1998),page 107; Michael Rowbotham,"How Third World Debt Is Createdand How It Can Be Cancelled,"Sovereignty (May 2002),sovereignty.org.uk.

19. Vincent Ferraro, et al., "Global Debtand Third World Development," inMichael Klare et al., eds., WorldSecurity: Challenges for a NewCentury (New York: St. Martin'sPress, 1994), pages 332-35.

20. William Engdahl, "Why Iran's OilBourse Can't Break the Buck," EnergyBulletin (March 12, 2006).

21. John Mueller, "Reserve CurrencyProblems Need Golden Solutions,"Financial Times (August 20, 2004);Chris Gaffney, "Waiting on theNumbers," Daily Reckoning (August11, 2006).

Chapter 22

1. William Engdahl, A Century of WarInsurance Corporation, History ofthe 80s, Volume I, Chapter 5, "TheLDC Crisis," fdic.gov (2000).

2. W. L. Hoskins, et al., "Mexico: PolicyFailure, Moral Hazard, and MarketSolutions," Cato Policy Analysis,cato.org (October 10,1995); "Mexican

Populism: 1970 to 1982," http//:daphne.palomar.edu (1996).

3. Henry C. K. Liu, "China, Part 2:Tequila Trap Beckons China," AsiaTimes (November 6, 2004).

4. W. Engdahl, op. cit.

5. Jane Ingraham, "A Fistful of . . .Pesos?", New American (February20,1995).

6. H. C. K. Liu, op. cit.

7. Achin Vanaik, "Cancel Third WorldDebt," The Hindu, hindu.com.(August 18, 2001).

8. J. N. Tlaga, "Euro and Gold PriceManipulation," gold-eagle.com(December 22, 2000).

9. Eqbal Ahmad, "The Reconquest ofMexico," tni.org (March 1995).

10. Bill Murphy, "Blueprint for a GATAVictory," gata.org (August 6, 2000).

11. J. Ingraham, op. cit.

12. Joseph Stiglitz, "The Broken Promiseof NAFTA," New York Timesganuary 6, 2004).

13. David Peterson, "Militant Capital-ism," ZMagazine (February 1996).

14. Christopher Whalen, "RobertRubin's Shell Game," eco.utexas.edu(October 10, 1995); Jim Callis, "WhatNAFTA Has Brought to Mexicans,"cooperativeindividualism.org(March 1998).

15. H.C K. Liu, op. cit.

16. Michel Chossudovsky, "The Curseof Economic Globalization," Mon-etary Reform On-line (fall/winter1998-99).

Chapter 23

1. Rachel Douglas, et al., "The Fight toBring the American System to 19thCentury Russia," Executive Intelli-gence Review (January 1992).

2. Anton Chaitkin, "The 'AmericanSystem' in Russia, China, Germany

504

and Japan: How Henry Carey and theAmerican Nationalists Built theModern World/' American Almanac(May 1997).

3. G. Edward Griffin, The Creaturefrom Tekyll Island (Westlake Village,California: American Media, 1998),chapter 13.

4. Rachel Douglas, et al., "The Fight toBring the American System to 19thCentury Russia," Executive Intelli-gence Review (January 3, 1992).

5. "History: Bank of Russia,"www.cbr.ru (2005).

6. G. E. Griffin, op. cit., chapter 13;Robert Wilton, Russia's Agony (1918)and the Last Days of the Romanovs(1920).

7. G. E. Griffin, op. cit., pages 287-88.

8. "History: Bank of Russia," op. cit.

9. G. E. Griffin, op. cit., pages 292-93.

10. Srdja Trifkovic, "Neoconservatism,Where Trotsky Meets Stalin andHitler," Chronicles (July 23, 2003);Martin Kelly, "NeoCons and the BlueBolsheviks," Washington Dispatch(September 24, 2004); "Alex JonesInterviews Jude Wanniski,"prisonplanet.tv (February 2, 2005).

11. S. Trifkovic, op. cit.

12. "History: Bank of Russia," op. cit.

13. "Alex Jones Interviews JudeWanniski," prisonplanet.tv (Febru-ary 2, 2005).

14. Wayne Ellwood, "The GreatPrivatization Grab," New Interna-tionalist Magazine (April 2003).

15. Mark Weisbrot, "Testimony Beforethe House of RepresentativesCommittee on Banking and FinancialServices on the InternationalMonetary Fund and Its Operations inRussia," http://financialservices.house.gov/banking/91098ppp.htm (September10,1998).

Chapter 24

1. John Weitz, Hitler's Banker (GreatBritain: Warner Books, 1999).

2. Stephen Zarlenga, The Lost Scienceof Money (Valatie, New York:American Monetary Institute, 2002),pages 590-600.

3. Matt Koehl, "The Good Society?",rense.com (January 13, 2005).

4. S. Zarlenga, op. cit., page 590.

5. Ibid., pages 591, 595-96.

6. Henry Makow, "Hitler Did NotWant War," savethemales.com(March 21, 2004).

7. Henry C. K. Liu, "Nazism and theGerman Economic Miracle," AsiaTimes (May 24, 2005).

8. Stephen Zarlenga, "Germany's 1923Hyperinflation: A 'Private' Affair,"Barnes Review (July-August 1999);David Kidd, "How Money IsCreated in Australia," http://dkd.net/davekidd/politics/money.html (2001).

9. S. Zarlenga, "Germany's 1923Hyperinflation," op. cit.

Chapter 25

1. William Engdahl, A Century of War(New York: Paul & Co., 1993), page235.

2. Professor Thayer Watkins, San JoseState University Economics Depart-ment, "What Happens When a PaperCurrency Fails?", www.2.sjsu.edu.

3. W. Engdahl, op. cit., pages 239-41.

4. Ibid., page 236.

5. Albero Benegas Lynch, "The Argen-tine Inflation," libertyhaven.com(1972).

6. Carlos Escud , "From Captive toFailed State: Argentina UnderSystemic Populism, 1975-2006," TheFletcher Forum of World Affairs(Tufts University, Summer 2006).

505

7. Dennis Small, "Argentina Proves/'Executive Intelligence Review(February 8, 2002).

8. Larry Rohter, "Argentina's EconomicRally Defies Forecasts/' New YorkTimes (December 23, 2004).

9. "Argentine Peso," Answers.com;"Banco Central de la RepublicaArgentina," Wikipedia.org; "Tuckingin to the Good Times,"Economist.com (December 19, 2006).

10. "Tucking in to the Good Times,"ibid.

11. Jorge Altamira, "The Payment to theIMF Is Embezzlement CommittedAgainst Argentina," Prensa Obrerano. 929 (2005).

12. Ibid.; Cynthia Rush, "Argentina,Brazil Pay Off Debt to IMF," Execu-tive Intelligence Review (December30, 2005); Dennis Small, "'VultureFunds' Descend on Dying ThirdWorld Economies," ExecutiveIntelligence Review (October 10,2003).

13. "Bags of Bricks: Zimbabweans GetNew Money - for What It's Worth,"The Economist (August 24, 2006);Thomas Homes, "IMF Contributes toZimbabwe's Hyperinflation,"newzimbabwe.com (March 5, 2006).

14. Henry C. K. Liu, "China, Part 2:Tequila Trap Beckons China," AsiaTimes (November 6, 2004).

Chapter 26

1. Kathy Wolfe, "Hamilton's GhostHaunts Washington from Tokyo -Excerpts from the Leaders of theMeiji Restoration," ExecutiveIntelligence Review (January 1992).

2. Ibid.

3. Chalmers Johnson, "On the JapaneseThreat," Multinational Monitor(November 1989).

4. William Engdahl, A Century of War(New York: Paul & Co., 1993), page229.

5. Ibid.

6. Chalmers Johnson, "How America'sCrony Capitalists Ruined TheirRivals," Los Angeles Times (May 7,1999).

7. Mark Weisbrot, "Testimony Beforethe House of RepresentativesCommittee on Banking and FinancialServices on the International Mon-etary Fund and Its Operations inRussia," http: / /financialservices.house. gov /banking/91098ppp.htm (September10,1998).

8. Michel Chossudovsky, "The Curse ofEconomic Globalization," MonetaryReform On-line (fall/winter 1998-99).

9. Ibid.

10. Martin Khor, "Malaysia InstitutesRadical Exchange, Capital Controls,"Third World Network,www.twnside.org.

11. "World Bank Reverses Position onFinancial Controls and on Malaysia,"Global Intelligence Update WeeklyAnalysis (September 20, 1999).

Chapter 27

1. Bill Ridley, "China and the FinalWar for Resources," gold-eagle.com/editorials (February 9, 2005).

2. Lee Siu Hin, "Journey to My Home -Hong Kong and China: Rediscover-ing the Meaning of Labor Activism,Being Chinese and Chinese National-ism," actionla.org (April 2004).

3. Michael Billington, "HamiltonInfluenced Sun Yat-Sen's Founding ofthe Chinese Republic," ExecutiveIntelligence Review (January 1992);"Sun Yat-Sen," reference.com (2005).

4. Jiawen Yang, et al., The ChineseCurrency: Background and the

506

Current Debate (GW Center for theStudy of Globalization, GeorgeWashington University).

5. "The People's Bank of China: Rulesand Regulations/' www.pbc.gov.cn(December 27, 2003); "Japan Nation-alizes, While China Privatizes,"RIETI, rieti.go.jp/en/miyakodayori/072.html (June 25, 2003); Chi HungKwan, "Will China's Four MajorBanks Succeed in Going Public?,"China in Transition, rieti.go.jp/en/china (August 31, 2004); Henry C KLiu, "The Wages of Neoliberalism,Part III: China's Internal DebtProblem," Asia Times (May 28, 2006).

6. C. H. Kwan, op. cit.; "Central Bank,"Wikipedia.

7. Henry C K Liu, "Banking Bunkum,Part 1: Monetary Theology," AsiaTimes (November 2, 2002).

8. Henry C K Liu, "The Wages of Neo-Liberalism, Part 1: Core Contradic-tions," Asia Times (March 22, 2006).

9. Greg Grillot, "The Mystery of Mr.Wu," The Daily Reckoning (May 10,2005).

10. Henry C. K. Liu, "The GlobalEconomy in Transition," Asia Times(September 16, 2003).

11 .Susanna Mitchell, "China Today-Restructuring the Iron Rice Bowl,"JubileeResearch.org (July 9, 2003); HeQinglian, "China Continues toBorrow Despite Heavy Debt," EpochTimes (November 8, 2005).

12. John Mauldin, "The Yield Curve,"gold-eagle.com (January 7, 2006).

13. Gary Dorsch, "The Commodity'Super Cycle,'" and "The CommoditySuper Cycle Goes into Extra In-nings," financialsense.com (January30 & April 24, 2006); William Buckler,"The Week the Bottom Fell Out," ThePrivateer (March 2006); StephenPoloz, "China's Trillion Dollar NestEgg," Export Development Canada ,

www.edc.ca (April 4, 2007).

14. Keith Bradsher, "From the Silk Roadto the Superhighway, All Coin Leadsto China," The New York Times(February 26, 2006).

15. Henry C. K. Liu, "China, Part 2:Tequila Trap Beckons China," AsiaTimes (November 6, 2004).

16. Henry C. K. Liu, "Nazism and theGerman Economic Miracle," AsiaTimes (May 24, 2005).

17. Henry C. K. Liu, "Crippling Debtand Bankrupt Solutions," Asia Times(September 28, 2002).

18. David Fuller, "Taking the Bull by theHorns," The Daily Reckoning(October 4, 2005); Mike Shedlock(Mish), "Global Savings GlutRevisited," http://

globaleconomicanalysis.blogspot.com(December 26, 2006).

19. B. Ridley, op. cit.

Chapter 28

1. "Commanding Heights: The Battlefor the World Economy," pbs.org(2002).

2. William Engdahl, A Century of War(New York: Paul & Co., 1993), pages140,161.

3. The Research Unit for PoliticalEconomy, "India as 'Global Power,'"Aspects of India's Global Economy ,rupe-india.org (December 2005).

4. Wayne Ellwood, "The GreatPrivatization Grab," New Interna-tionalist Magazine (April 2003).

5. Vincent Ferraro, et al., "Global Debtand Third World Development," inMichael Klare et al, eds., WorldSecurity: Challenges for a NewCentury (New York: St. Martin'sPress, 1994), pages 332-35.

6. H. Caldicott, "First World Greed andThird World Debt," in If You LoveThis Planet (New York: WW.Norton, 1992).

507

7. Henry C K Liu, "How the U.S. WillPlay China in the New Cold War/'Asia Times (April 18, 2002).

8. Achin Vanaik, "Cancel Third WorldDebt," The Hindu, hindu.com(August 18, 2001).

9. Christian Weller, Adam Hersh, "FreeMarkets and Poverty," AmericanProspect (January 1, 2002).

10. "Indian Banking - Introduction,"asiatradehub.com (2006).

11. "State Bank of India Ranks Highestin Consumer Satisfaction," LP.Power Asia Pacific Reports (2001).

12. Greg Palast, "French Fried Fried-man," The Nouvelle Globalizer (June5, 2005).

13. Caroline Lucas MEP, Vandana Shiva,Colin Hines, "The Consequence ofthe UK Government's DamagingApproach to Global Trade," Sustain-able Economics (April 2005).

14. Radio interview of Vendana Shiva,democracynow.org (December 13,2006).

15. C. Lucas, et al., op. cit.

16. Bob Djurdjevic, "Wall Street'sFinancial Terrorism," Chronicles(March 1998).

Chapter 29

1. Al Martin, "Bushonomics II (Part 1):The End Game," almartinraw.com(April 11, 2005); Speech by GlobalExchange founder Kevin Danaher,"Indymedia," KPFK (Los Angeles),March 15, 2004.

2. A. Martin, op. cit.

3. M. Whitney," Coming Sooner ThanYou Think: The Economic Tsunami,"counterpunch.com (April 8, 2005).

4. Isaac Shapiro, J. Friedman, New,Unnoticed CBO Data Show CapitalIncome Has Become Much MoreConcentrated at the Top (Washing-ton, DC: Center on Budget andPolicy Priorities, 2006).

5. Catherine Austin Fitts, "The Ameri-can Tapeworm - Debt Up, EquityDown & Out," Scoop, scoop.co.nz(May 1, 2003); Chris Sanders, "WhereIs the Collateral?", scoop.co.nz(October 28, 2003).

6. Citizens for Tax Justice, "New DataShow Growing Wealth Inequality,"ctj.org (May 12, 2006).

7. Jeff Gates, "Ten Ways ThatNeoliberals Redistribute WealthWorldwide," Radar (July 2001);Ralph Nader interviewed by GeorgeNoory, coasttocoastam.com (Septem-ber 24, 2004).

8. Barbara Whilehan, "Bankruptcy BillBad for Debtors," bankrate.com(March 23, 2005).

9. Jeffrey Steinberg, "We Can BeatRohatyn and the Synarchists," WhitePaper from EIR Seminar in Berlin(June 27,2006).

10. "Figures Show States Falling Deeperinto Deficit," The Business Journal(Tampa Bay), January 7, 2003.

11. Paul Krugman, "The Debt-PeonageSociety," New York Times (March 8,2005).

12. Elizabeth Warren, Amelia WarrenTyagi, The Two-Income Trap: WhyMiddle-Class Mothers and FathersAre Going Broke (New York: BasicBooks, 2003).

13. Nicole Colson, "Drowning in Debt,"Socialist Worker Online (February13, 2004).

14. Chicago Federal Reserve, "ModernMoney Mechanics" (1963), originallyproduced and distributed free by thePublic Information Center of theFederal Reserve Bank of Chicago,Chicago, Illinois, now available onthe Internet at http://landru.i-link-2.net/monques/mmm2.html, page 6.

15. "The Facts About Credit Cards,"worldnewsstand.net/money/credit_cards.htm.

508

Chapter 30

1. Christian Weller, "For Middle-classFamilies, Dream of Own HouseDrowns in Sea of Debt/' Center forAmerican Progress,americanprogress.org (May 2005).

2. U.S. Department of Housing andUrban Development (HUD), "LargePercentage of Properties Are OwnedFree and Clear," hud.gov (October12, 2005).

3. C. Weller, op. cit.; HUD, op.cit.; MikeWhitney, "The Fed's Role in theHousing Crash of '07," DissidentVoice, dissidentvoice.org (January 9,2007); Martin Weiss, "Final Stage ofthe Real Estate Bubble," Safe MoneyReport (June 2005).

4. William Buckler, "The Week theBottom Fell Out," The Privateer(March 2006); Gracchus, "A NewAmerica," rense.com (February 19,2003).

5. Comptroller of the Currency,"Comptroller Dugan ExpressesConcern about Negative Amortiza-tion," occ.gov (December 1, 2005).

6. See bankrate.com.

7. Craig Harris, "The Real EstateBubble," 321gold.com/editorials(March 11, 2004).

8. Gary North, "Surreal Estate on theSan Andreas Fault," Reality Check(November 22, 2005).

9. Annys Shin, "House Passes Bill onFannie and Freddie Oversight,"Washington Post (October 27, 2005);"Alan Greenspan is Worried aboutthe Mortgage Lending Agencies,"The Economist, economist.com(February 18, 2005).

10. M. Whitney, op. cit; RichardFreeman, "Fannie and Freddie WereLenders: U.S. Real Estate Bubble NearIts End," Executive IntelligenceReview (June 21, 2002).

11. M. Whitney, op. cit.

Chapter 31

1. Al Martin, "Bullish Shillism,"almartinraw.com (June 20, 2005). Seealso Dana Milbank, "Almost Unno-ticed, Bipartisan Budget Anxiety,"Washington Post (May 18, 2005).

2. Adam Hamilton, "Real Rates andGold 6," ZEAL, zealllc.com (2004).

3. Al Martin, op. cit.

4. Ibid., citing testimony by FederalReserve Chairman Alan Greenspanbefore the Joint Economic Commit-tee in June 2005. See also KurtRichebacher, "Mr. Ponzi Salutes,"The Richebacher Letter (June 2005).

5. Richard Freeman, "Fannie andFreddie Were Lenders: U.S. RealEstate Bubble Near Its End," Execu-tive Intelligence Review (June 21,2002).

6. "U.S. Financial Systemic Risk: FannieMae & Freddie Mac," http://seattlebubble.blogspot.com (August11,2006).

7. Eric Weiner, "Foreclosure-proofHomes?", Los Angeles Times(December 3, 2007).

8. Bob Chapman, "New Scams and NewLosses," The International Forecaster(November 17, 2007).

Chapter 32

1. R. Colt Bagley III, "Update: RecordDerivatives Growth Ups SystemRisk," moneyfiles.org/specialgata04.html (July 29, 2004),reprinted in LeMetropoleCafe.

2. C. White, "How to Bring theCancerous Derivatives Market UnderControl," American Almanac(September 6, 1993).

3. Martin Weiss, Global Vesuvius: $285Trillion in Very High-risk Debts andBets!," Safe Money Report (Novem-ber 2006).

509

4. See Chapter 20.

5. M. Weiss, op. cit.

6. Gary Novak, "Derivatives CreatingGlobal Economic Collapse," http://nov55.com/economy.html (June 30,2006).

7. "Slipping on Derivative BananaPeels," http: / / worldvisionportal .org(February 9, 2004).

8. Lothar Komp, "'Hedge Fund'Blowout Threatens World Markets,"Executive Intelligence Review (May27, 2005).

9. Ibid.

10. Nelson Hultberg, "Cornered Ratsand the PPT," gold-eagle.com/editorials (March 26, 2003).

11. Captain Hook, "A Few Thoughts onRecently Announced ReportingChanges at the Fed," TreasureChests, November 14, 2005, reprintedon safehaven.com (November 18,2005).

12. The Mogambo Guru (RichardDaughty), "The 'Two Trill in Cash'Plan," The Daily Reckoning (April10,2006).

13. "Petro-Euro: A Reality or DistantNightmare for U.S.?", aljazeera.com(April 30, 2006).

14. Rob Kirby, "The Grand Illusion,"financialsense.com (December 13,2005).

15. R. Daughty, op.cit.

16. "America's Black Budget and theManipulation of Mortgage andFinancial Markets," interview withCatherine Austin Fitts, FinancialSense Newshour, netcastdaily.com(May 22, 2004).

17. M. Whitney," Coming Sooner ThanYou Think: The Economic Tsunami,"counterpunch.com (April 8, 2005);Gregory Palast, "The Globalizer WhoCame in from the Cold," The London

Observer (October 10, 2001).

18. See, e.g., Bob Chapman, The Interna-tional Forecaster (September 3, 2003),goldseek.com/news/

Interna tionalForecaster /1062763200.php.

19. Jeremy Scahill, "Blackwater Down,"The Nation (October 10, 2005).

20. Henry Kissinger, Speech atBilderberg Conference in Evians-Les-Bains, France, May 1992, "QuotationsAttributed to Henry Kissinger,"rense.com (December 1, 2002).

21. Al Martin, "FEMA, CILFs and StateSecurity: Shocking Updates,"almartinraw.com (November 28,2005).

22. Ibid.; Michael Meurer, "GreenspanTestimony Highlights Bush Plan forDeliberate Federal Bankruptcy,"truthout.org (March 2, 2004).

23. Henry C K Liu, "The GlobalEconomy in Transition," Asia Times(September 16, 2003).

24. See Richard Hoskins, War Cycles,Peace Cycles (Lynchburg, Virginia:Virginia Publishing Company, 1985).

25. John Crudele, "Paulson's Other Jobas Wall St. Plunge Protector," NewYork Post (June 9, 2006).

Chapter 33

1. Michael Bolser, "Cartel CapitulationWatch," Midas, lemetropolecafe.com(April 18, 2004).

2. Bill Murphy, "Consolidation DayBefore Gold and Silver Resume MoveHigher," Midas,

lemetropolecafe.com (Oct. 2, 2005).

3. John Crudele, "George Let PlungeSlip," New York Post (June 27, 2006).

4. Executive Order 12631 of March 18,1988, 53 FR, 3 CFR, 1988 Comp., page559.

5. Michael Bolser, "Enough Is Enough,"Midas, lemetropolecafe.com (January

510

26, 2004). See his chart site at

pbase.com/gmbolser/

interventional_analysis.

6. John Emry, Not Free, Not Fair: TheLong-term Manipulation of the GoldPrice (Toronto: Sprott Asset Manage-ment, August 24, 2004), reprinted atfallstreet.com.

7. John Embry, Andrew Hepburn, "USStocks: The Visible Hand of UncleSam," introduction by Japan Focus,Asia Times (October 19, 2005).

8. Chuck Augustin, "Plunge Protectionor Enormous Hidden Tax Revenues,"lemetropolecafe.com (June 30, 2006).

9. Jim Sinclair, "Cartel BlatantlyHammers Gold," jsmineset.com(November 21, 2003).

10. The John Brimelow Report,"Goldman Sach's 'Partner'," Midas,lemetropolecafe.com (March 24,2004), quoting Bianco Researchreport.

11. The Prowler, "Raid on the Treasury,"The American Spectator (October 12,2006).

12. Bill Murphy, "Moral Hazard,"LeMetropoleCafe.com (September 8,2006), reposted at gata.org/node/4361 (September 9, 2006), quoting JoeStocks at siliconinvestor.com/readmsg.aspx?msgid=22789705.

13. Ibid., citing federalreserve.gov/boarddocs / speeches /2002/200209252/ default.htm.

14. Ibid., citing crmpolicygroup.org/docs/CRMPG-II.pdf.

15. M. Bolser, op. cit.

16. Alex Wallenwein, "The Dollar, theCrash, and the FTAA,"financialsense.com (April 21, 2004).

17. Addison Wiggin, The Demise of theDollar ( Hoboken, New Jersey: JohnWiley & Sons, 2005), page 63.

18. Hans Schicht, "From a DifferentPerspective, " gold-eagle.com (July 7,2003).

19. Richard Freeman, "London's

Cayman Islands: The Empire of theHedge Funds, Executive IntelligenceReview (March 9, 2007).

Chapter 34

1. "The Coming Storm," The Economist(London), February 17, 2004, quotedin "New Bretton Woods Advances asDollar Faces 'The Coming Storm,"Executive Intelligence Review(March 5, 2004).

2. John Hoefle, "Mergers, DerivativesLosses Reveal Bankruptcy of the U.S.Banking System," Executive Intelli-gence Review (November 1, 2002).

3. Michael Edward, "Cooking theBooks: U.S. Banks Are Giant Casi-nos," http: / / worldvisionportalorg(February 2, 2004).

4. Robert Guttman, How Credit-MoneyShapes the Economy (Armonk, NewYork: M. E. Sharpe, 1994), Sections 11,11.1.

5. Ibid., Sections 10 and 11.

6. The Boston Consulting Group,"Growing Profits Under Pressure:Integrating Corporate and Invest-ment Banking," bcg.com (2002).

7. "Wall Street v Wall Street," TheEconomist (June 29, 2006).

8. William Hummel, "Money CenterBanks," in Money: What It Is, How ItWorks http://wfhummel.net(January 8, 2004).

9. Radio interviews of Patrick Byrne onChristian Financial Network,November 11, 2006; and on FinancialSense Online, March 31, 2007.

10. Liz Moyer, "Naked Shorts,"Forbes.com (April 13, 2006). See alsoLiz Moyer, "Crying Foul in Short-selling Land," Forbes.com (June 21,2006).

11. Dave Lewis, "Too Big to Bail (Out): ACase of Humpty Dumpty Finance,"

511

http://dharmajoint.blogspot.com/2007/03/too-big-to-bail-out-case-of-humpty.html (March 9, 2007).

12. Murray Rothbard, "FractionalReserve Banking," The Freeman(October 1995), reprinted onlewrockwell.com.

13. See, e.g., Addison Wiggin, TheDemise of the Dollar ( Hoboken,New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons,2005), chapter 8; Martin Weiss,safemoneyreport.com; J. Taylor,miningstocks.com; Bill Bonner,dailyreckoning.com.

Chapter 35

1. David Parker, "The Rise and Fall ofThe Wonderful Wizard of Oz as a'Parable on Populism/" Journal ofthe Georgia Association of Histori-ans 15:49-63 (1994).

2. Dr. Peter Lindemann, "Where in theWorld Is All the Free Energy?"Nexus Magazine (vol. 8, no. 4), June-July 2001.

3. Ron Paul questioning Ben Bernankebefore the Joint Economic Commit-tee on March 28, 2006, C-SPAN.

4. Board of Governors of the FederalReserve, "M3 Money Stock (discon-tinued series),"

http://research.stlouisfed.org/fred2/data/M3SL.txt.

5. Richard Russell, "I Believe the DollarIs Doomed," The Russell Report(August 23, 2006).

6. Y. Trofimov, "Conspiracy TheoryGains Currency, Thanks to Town'sProfessor Auriti," Wall Street Journal(October 7, 2000), page 34.

7. NORFED, norfed.org.

8. Barbara Hagenbaugh, "Feds LowerBoom on Alternative Money," USAToday (September 15, 2006); "LibertyDollar," Wikipedia.

9. GoldMoney, goldmoney.com.

10. "Impact of the Grameen Bank onLocal Society," rdc.com.au/grameen/Impact.html.

11. Michael Strong, "Forget the WorldBank, Try Wal-Mart," TCS Daily(August 22, 2006).

Chapter 36

1. Stephen DeMeulenaere, "A PictorialHistory of Community CurrencySystems," appropriate-economics.org(2000).

2. Thomas Greco Jr., New Money forHealthy Communities (Tucson,Arizona, 1994), pages 17-21, quoting"A Public Service Economy: AnInterview with Edgar S. Cahn,"Multinational Monitor (April 1989).

3. T. Greco, op. cit.

4. Ravi Dykema, "An Interview withBernard Lietaer," Nexus (July/August 2003).

5. David Johnston, Bernard Lietaer,"EC02 Carbon Credit Card Project"(Draft Proposal, January 31, 2007).

6. James Taris, "Travelling the WorldWithout Money," lets-linkup.com.

7. Thomas Greco Jr., Money and Debt:A Solution to the Global Debt Crisis(Tucson, Arizona, 1990), page 42.

8. Stephen Zarlenga, The Lost Scienceof Money (Valatie, New York:American Monetary Institute, 2002),page 660.

Chapter 37

1. Gretchen Ritter, Goldbugs andGreenbacks: The AntimonopolyTradition and the Politics of Financein America, 1865-1896 (New York:University of Cambridge, 1997).

2. Vernon Parrington/'The Old andNew: Storm Clouds," Vol. 3, Bk. 2,Main Currents in American Thought(1927).

3. Stephen Zarlenga, The Lost Science

512

of Money (Valatie, New York:American Monetary Institute, 2002),page 604.

4. "Compound Interest Calculator,"FIDO: Australian Securities andInvestment Commission,fido.asic.gov.au.

5. Tuoi Tre, Ho Chi Minh City,Vietnam, via VietNamBridge.net(November 26, 2005).

6. S. Zarlenga, op. cit., page 658.

7. G. Edward Griffin, The Creaturefrom lekyll Island (Westlake Village,California: American Media, 1998),page 142.

8. Nelson Hultberg, "The Future ofGold as Money," Gold-eagle.com(February 1, 2005), citing AntalFekete, Monetary Economics 101.

9. "Real Bills Doctrine," wikipedia.org.

10. KilowattCards.com.

11. Harvey Barnard, The NationalEconomic Stabilization and RecoveryAct, http://nesara.org.

Chapter 38

1. National Press Club speech by DavidWalker in Washington on September17, 2003.

2. Al Martin, "Bushonomics II (Part 1):The End Game," almartinraw.com(April 11, 2005).

3. John Pilger, "Iran: The Next War,"New Statesman, newstatesman.com(February 13, 2006).

4. Mike Whitney," Coming SoonerThan You Think: The EconomicTsunami," counterpunch.com (April8, 2005).

6. Rob Kirby, "Pirates of the Carib-bean," financialsense.com (March 18,2005).

6. Rob Kirby, "Currency Conun-drums," financialsense.com (Novem-ber 21, 2005).

7. Robert McHugh, "What's the Fed Upto with the Money Supply?",safehaven.com (December 23, 2005);Ed Haas, "Iran, Bourse and the U.S.Dollar," NewsWithViews.com(January 28, 2006); "The Dollar MayFall This March," Pravda (January 14,2006); Martin Walker, "Iran's ReallyBig Weapon," globalresearch.ca(January 23, 2006); and see Chapter32.

8. See "Ponzi Scheme," You Be theJudge and Jury, chapter 3,maxexchange.com/ybj/chapter3.htm.

9. Department of the Treasury, "PublicDebt News," Bureau of the PublicDebt, Washington, D.C. 20239ganuary 15, 2004).

10. "U.S. Treasury Defaults on 30 YearBond Holders," rense.com (January20, 2004).

11. Jerry Voorhis, The Strange Case ofRichard Milhous Nixon (New York:S. Erikson Inc., 1972).

12. G. Edward Griffin, The Creaturefrom lekyll Island (Westlake Village,California: American Media, 1998),page 575; American MonetaryInstitute, "The American MonetaryAct" (September 2006), "ProposedLegislation," www.monetary.org.

Chapter 39

1. William Hummel, "Zeroing theNational Debt," Money: What It Is,How It Works, http://wfhummel.net(March 3, 2002).

2. Bud Conrad, "M3 Measure of MoneyDiscontinued by the Fed,"financialsense.com (November 22,2005).

3. "National Debt Clocks: NationalDebt by the Second," http://zfacts.eom/p/461.html (March 4,2005).

513

4. March 2005 radio interview of MarkWeisbrot, co-author of SocialSecurity: The Phony Crisis (Chicago:University of Chicago Press, 1999).

5. Treasury Bulletin, fms.treas.gov/bulletin/b44ofs.doc (December 2004).

6. "U.S. Public Debt/' Wikipedia, citingfigures from The Analytical Perspec-tives of the 2006 U.S. Budget, page257.

7. Robert Bell, "The Invisible Hand (ofthe U.S. Government) in FinancialMarkets," financialsense.com (April3,2005).

8. "Global Savings Glut Revisited,"Mish's Global Economic TrendAnalysis, http://

globaleconomicanalysis.blogspot.com(December 26, 2006).

9. "The Dow Jones Wilshire 5000Composite Index, FundamentalCharacteristics Month Ending 12/30/2005," wilshire.com/Indexes/Broad/Wilshire5000/Characteristics.html.

10. "S&P 500 Index," yahoo.com.

11. Stanley Schultz, "Crashing Hopes:The Great Depression," AmericanHistory 102: Civil War to the Present(University of Wisconsin 1999).

Chapter 40

1. Richard Russell, "I Believe the DollarIs Doomed," The Russell Report(August 23, 2006).

2. Ben Bernanke, "Deflation: MakingSure 'It' Doesn't Happen Here,"Remarks Before the NationalEconomists Club, Washington, D.C.(November 21, 2002).

3. Ben Bernanke, "Some Thoughts onMonetary Policy in Japan" (May2003), quoted in Richard Duncan,"How Japan Financed GlobalReflation," John Mauldin's Outsidethe Box, reprinted in gold-eagle.com(May 16, 2005).

4. "Bank of Japan Law,"globaledge.msu.edu (December 15,1998); "Japan Nationalizes, WhileChina Privatizes," RIETI, rieti.go.jp/en/miyakodayori/072.html (June 25,2003).

5. Richard Duncan, "Japan's MonetaryAlchemy May Not Yield Gold,"Financial Times (February 10, 2004).

6. R. Duncan, "How Japan FinancedGlobal Reflation," op. cit.

7. Ibid.

8. Joseph Stroupe, "Speaking Freely:Crisis Towers Over the Dollar," AsiaTimes (November 25, 2004).

9. Rob Kirby, "Pirates of the Carib-bean," financialsense.com (March 18,2005). See Chapter 33.

10. Robert McHugh, "What's the Fed Upto with the Money Supply?",safehaven.com (December 23, 2005).

Chapter 41

1. See Chapter 2.

2. William Hummel, "Non-banksVersus Banks," in Money: What It Is,How It Works, http://wfhummel.net(May 17, 2002).

3. Gerry Rough, "A Bank of England

Conspiracy?", floodlight.org (1997).

4. James Robertson, John Bunzl, Mon-

etary Reform: Making It Happen(2003), jamesrobertson.com, page 26.

5. Ibid., pages 41- 42.

6. Stephen Zarlenga, The Lost Science of

Money (Valatie, New York: Ameri-can Monetary Institute, 2002), pages671-73.

7. Robert de Fremery, Rights Vs.

Privileges (San Anselmo, California:Provocative Press 1997), pages 84-85.

8. Ellen Brown, "Market Meltdown,"webofdebt.com/articles (September3, 2007); "Bank Run or StealthBailout?", ibid- (September 20, 2007);"Sustainable Energy Development:

514

How Costs Can Be Cut in Half,"ibid. (November 5, 2007). SeeChapter 2.

9. American Monetary Institute, "TheAmerican Monetary Act" (September2006), "Proposed Legislation,"monetary.org.

10. "Monetary Reform Act,"themoneymasters.com (2006).

11. Table B-72, "Bank Credit of AllCommercial Banks, 1959-2005,"http://a257.g.akamaitech.net/7/257/2422/15feb20061000/www.gpoaccess.gov/eop/2006/B72.xls.

12. William Hummel, "A Plan forMonetary Reform," Money: What ItIs, How It Works, http://wfhummel.net (December 7, 2006).

13. Nouriel Roubini, "With the Reces-sion Becoming Inevitable theConsensus Shifts Towards the HardLanding View," rgemonitor.com(November 16, 2007).

14. Chris Cook, "Reversing the Polar-ity," Energy Risk (September 2007),pages 70-71; Chris Cook, "21stCentury Islamic Finance," Al-Tazeerah (February 12, 2006).

15. Robert Guttman, How Credit-MoneyShapes the Economy (Armonk, NewYork: M. E. Sharpe, 1994).

16. "History of the U.S. Postal Service,1775-1993," usps.com.

17. W. Hummel, "A Plan for MonetaryReform," op. cit.

Chapter 42

1. Roger Langrick, "A MonetarySystem for the New Millennium,"worldtrans.org/whole/monetarysystem.html.

2. Reuters, "Iran Mulls 'Interest-free'Banking," arabianbusiness.com(September 6, 2007).

3. See Ellen Brown, "Behind the Drumsof War with Iran: Nuclear Weaponsor Compound Interest?",webofdebt.com/articles (November13, 2007); E. Brown, "Why Is IranStill in the Cross-hairs? Clues fromthe Project for a New AmericanCentury," ibid- (January 9, 2007).

4. The Project for the New AmericanCentury, "Rebuilding America'sDefenses," newamericancentury.org

(2000) .

5. See John Perkins, "Confessions of anEconomic Hit Man" (Plume 2005).

6. Haitham Al-Haddad and Tarek El-Diwany, "The Islamic Mortgage:Paradigm Shift or Trojan Horse?",islamic-finance.com (November2006).

7. Abdul Gafoor, Interest-free Com-mercial Banking (1995), chapter 4,"Islamic Banking;" "Sweden'sSustainable Finance System," GlobalPublic Media (October 16, 2007).

8. Margrit Kennedy, Interest andInflation-free Money (1995), seeDeidre Kent, "Margrit KennedyInspires New Zealand Groups toEstablish Regional Money Systems,"mkeever.com (2002).

9. Ellen Brown, "Sustainable EnergyDevelopment: How Costs Can BeCut in Half," webofdebt.com/articles(November 5, 2007).

10. Betty Reid Mandell, "Privatizationof Everything," New Politics 9(1-2)(2002).

11. See Chapter 28.

12. David Kidd, "How Money is Createdin Australia," http://dkd.net/davekidd/politics/money.html

(2001) .

13. Ministry of Works, State Housing inNew Zealand (1949), page 7, quotedby Stan Fitchett in "How to Be aBillionaire," Guardian Political

515

Review (Winter 2004), page 25.

14. Lyndon LaRouche, "Economics: TheEnd of a Delusion (Leesburg,Virginia, April 2002), page 88.

15. B. Mandell, op. cit.

16. See Harvey Wasserman,"California's Deregulation Disaster,"The Nation (February 12, 2001).

17. Catherine Austin Fitts, "How theMoney Works," SRA Quarterly,London (November 2001).

18. See Chapter 29.

Chapter 43

1. Richard Russell, "The Takeover ofU.S. Money Creation," Dow TheoryLetter (April 2005).

2. Hans Schicht, "The Death of Bankingand Macro Politics," 321gold.com/editorials (February 9, 2005).

3. Insurance Information Institute,Financial Services Fact Book (2005),http://financialservicefacts.org/financial / banking/ commercial /content.print.

4. William Hummel, "Deposit Insur-ance and Bank Failures," in Money:What It Is, How It Works, http://wfhummel.net (April 15, 2000).

5. G. Edward Griffin, The Creature fromlekyll Island (Westlake Village,California: American Media, 1998),pages 63, 65.

6. Emily Thornton, Mike France, "ForEnron's Bankers, a 'Get Out of JailFree' Card," businessweek.com(August 11, 2003).

7. Martin Weiss, "Global Vesuvius,"Safe Money Report (November 2006).

8. John Hoefle, "The Federal ReserveVs. The United States," ExecutiveIntellligence Review, April 12, 2002.

9. Dean Baker, "Effective Currency

Transaction Taxes: The Need to TaxDerivatives," Center for Economicand Policy Research, cepr.net (June19, 2001).

10. Dean Baker, "Taxing Financial

Speculation: Shifting the Tax Burdenfrom Wages to Wagers," cepr.net(February 2000).

Chapter 44

1. "Federal Budget Spending and theNational Debt," federalbudget.com(October 20, 2005).

2. Federal Reserve, "Assets andLiabilities of Commercial Banks inthe United States,"federalreserve.gov/releases/h8/Current/ (December 30, 2005).

3. John Williams, "Monthly Commen-tary," Shadow Government Statistics,shadowstats.com/cgi-bin/sgs/archives (August 2006).

4. See Chapter 38.

5. Bill Fleckenstein, "The NumbersBehind the Lies," MSN Money, http://moneycentral.msn.com (March 6,

2006) .

6. Jan Vandermoortele, Are the MDGsFeasible? (New York: UnitedDevelopment Program Bureau forDevelopment Policy, July 2002).

7. Richard Cook, "Gap Between GDPand Purchasing Power," GlobalResearch (April 26, 2007).

8. "Economic Democracy," Wikipedia.

9. "$1 Trillion in Mortgage Losses?",Calculated Risk (December 28,

2007) .

10. Sean Olender, "Mortgage Melt-down," San Francisco Chronicle(December 9,2007).

11. "ECB Buys Time, But Doesn't

516

Resolve Credit Problems," MarketWatch (December 18,2007).

12. Harry Magdoff, et al., "The NewFace of Capitalism: Slow Growth,Excess Capital, and a Mountain ofDebt," Monthly Review (April 2002);Michael Hodges, "America's TotalDebt Report," http://mwhodges.home.att.net (March2006).

13. "Sovereignty Loans," FOMC Alert(June 29-30,1999); "H.R. 1452 [106th]:State and Local Government Eco-nomic Empowerment Act,"govtrack.us/congress.

14. New Zealand Democratic Party forSocial Credit, democrats.org.nz;Canadian Action Party,canadianactionparty.ca; BromsgroveGroup, prosperityuk.com; Forum forStable Currencies, ccmj.org; LondonGlobal Table, globaltable.org.uk;American Monetary Institute,monetary.org.

15. Rodney Shakespeare, The ModernUniversal Paradigm (2007), pages95-96.

16. "CAFRs: The Biggest Secret,"rense.com (June 30, 2000); TomValentine, "Media Watchdogs Won'tExpose Hidden Slush," AmericanFree Press, americanfreepress.net.

17. "Debate Continues on Alaska OilDrilling," CNNfyi.com (March 23,2001).

18. Roger Langrick, "A MonetarySystem for the New Millennium,"worldtrans.org/whole/monetarysystem.html.

Chapter 45

1. Martin Khor, "IMF: Bailing OutCountries or Foreign Banks?", ThirdWorld Network (February 18, 2005).

2. Abraham McLaughlin, "DebtForgiveness Gathers Steam,"Christian Science Monitor(September 30, 2004).

3. Michael Rowbotham, "How ThirdWorld Debt Is Created and How ItCan Be Cancelled," Sovereignty(May 2002), sovereignty.org.uk,excerpted from M. Rowbotham,"The Invalidity of Third WorldDebt" (1998), pages 14-17, and M.Rowbotham, Goodbye America!(Charlbury, England: Jon CarpenterPublishing, 2000), pages 135-36 and140-43.

4. See Chapter 25.

5. Andrew Berg, et al., "TheDollarization Debate," FinanceDevelopment (March 2000); "MixedBlessing: Can Dollarized EcuadorAvoid the Argentine Trap?",Financial Times (January 24, 2002);"El Salvador Learns to Love theGreenback," Economist (September26, 2002); Marcia Towers, "TheSocioeconomic Implications ofDollarization in El Salvador," LatinAmerican Politics and Society (fall2004).

6. See Ellen Brown, "SustainableEnergy Development: How CostsCan Be Cut in Half,"webofdebt.com/articles (November5, 2007).

6. Glen Martin, Ascent to Freedom: ThePractical and PhilosophicalFoundations of Democratic WorldLaw (Sun City, Arizona: Institute forEconomic Democracy, 2008).

Chapter 46

1. "Colonial Currency - MassachusettsTreasury Certificates," Departmentof Special Collections, Notre Dame,coins.nd.edu.

2. Michael Rowbotham, "An

517

Endnotes

Indispensable Key to a Just WorldEconomy," Prosperity,prosperityuk.com (October 2001).

3. Thomas Greco, "New Money: ACreative Opportunity for Business,"The Global Development ResearchCenter, www.gdrc.org.

4. Bernard Lietaer, "A 'Green'Convertible Currency,"www.transaction.net.

5. Frederick Mann, "Economic Meansto Freedom - Part V,"buildfreedom.com (October 2, 1998).

6. Doug Gillespie, "'Core' InflationDoesn't Work in Either Your Stom-ach or Your Gas Tank!",PrudentBear.com (May 26, 2005); TimIacono, "Home Ownership Costs andCore Inflation," http://themessthatgreenspanmade.blogspot.com(October 17, 2005).

7. Lyndon LaRouche Political ActionCommittee, "A New Bretton WoodsNow!", larouchepac.com (April 29,2005).

8. Lyndon LaRouche, "Trade WithoutCurrency," schillerinstitute.org(2000).

9. "Dr. Mahathir Mohamad,"aljazeera.com (August 12, 2004).

10. "Gold Dinar Coins,"taxfreegold.co.uk / golddinar.html.

11. Tarek El Diwany, "Third WorldDebt," presentation at CambridgeUniversity's "One World Week" inFebruary 2002, citing UNDP HumanDevelopment Report (1997), page 93.

12. Tarek El Diwany, "A Debate onMoney," islamic-banking.com (July2001).

Chapter 47

1. George Friedman, "Global MarketBrief: China's Engineered Drop,"worldnewstrust.com (March 1, 2007);

Mike Whitney, "Tuesday's MarketMeltdown," counterpunch.org(March 1,2007).

2. See, e.g., "The James Joyce Table,"lemetropolecafe.com (February 28,2007); and see Chapter 33.

3. M. Whitney, op. cit.

Postscript

1. Mark Gilbert, "Opaque Derivatives,Transparent Fed, 'Bubblenomics',"bloomberg.com (June 27, 2007).

2. Alex Gabor, "The Penny KingDeclares 'SEC Should Investigate Mr.Mozillo of Countrywide Financial,"americanchronicle.com (August 22,2007).

3 Iain Dey, et al., "Angry Savers ForceNorthern Rock to Be Sold,"Telegraph.Co.Uk (September 16,2007).

4. "Fears Over Rock's Online Ac-counts," BBC News (September 16,2007).

5. Peter Ralter, "News of the Day,"LeMetropoleCafe.com (September16, 2007).

6. John Hoefle, "The Federal ReserveVs. The United States," ExecutiveIntelligence Review, April 12, 2002.

7. Ron Paul, "Reject Taxpayer BankBailouts," LewRockwell.com (May 4,2005).

8. Chris Powell, "Central Banking IsEasy; The Challenge Is to Stay inPower," gata.com (August 23, 2007).

9. "Remarks from Hillary Clinton onthe Global Economic Crisis," CNN(January 22, 2008) (video preservedon allamericanpatriots.com).

10. Jim Sinclair, "Could This Be 'TheMother of All Wakeup Calls'?",jsmineset.com (January 20, 2008).

11. Carol Matlack, "Societe Generale's

518

Web of Debt

Fraud: What Now?", Business Week(January 24, 2008).

12. J. Sinclair, op. cit.

13. Mike Whitney, "Is This the BigOne?", Information Clearing House(January 21, 2008), citing cnbc.com/id/22706231.

14. "Countrywide CEO WaivesMassive Severance Package,"MortgageNewsDaily.com (February6, 2008).

15. Robert Kuttner, "Testimony Beforethe Committee on Financial Ser-vices," U.S. House of Representa-tives (October 2, 2007).

16. "Bond Insurers, Not Fed, DrivingMarket," seekingalpha.com (Febru-ary 4, 2008).

17. U.S. Credit-derivative Use Adds toAmbac, MBIA Volatility," Reuters(January 23, 2008).

18. Bethany McLean, "The Mystery ofthe $890 Billion Insurer," Fortune(May 16, 2005).

19. "Monoline Insurance," Wikipedia.

20. Jane Wells, "Ambac and MBIA:Bonds, Jane's Bonds," CNBC (Febru-ary 4, 2008).

21. "Mortgage Bond Insurers 'Need$200bn Boost,'" TimesOnline(January 25, 2008).

22. Adrian Ash, "Goldman SachsEscaped Subprime Collapse bySelling Subprime Bonds Short,"Daily Reckoning (October 19, 2007).

23. Sean Olender, "Mortgage Melt-down," SFGate.com (December 9,2007).

24. "Rulings May Hinder Trustees'Foreclosure Actions," Securities Law360 (Portfolio Media, Inc., December6, 2007).

25. Henry Gomez, Tom Ott, "ClevelandSues 21 Banks Over Subprime Mess,"The Plain Dealer (Cleveland,

January 11, 2008).

26. Greg Morcroft, "MassachusettsCharges Merrill with Fraud,"MarketWatch (February 1, 2008).

27. Mike Whitney, "The Bush FinancialBust of 2008: 'It's All Downhill fromHere, Folks,'" Counterpunch(February 8, 2008).

519

Index

A

Adams, John 47,343

adjustable rate mortgages (ARMs)

287-290, 455Aldrich, Nelson 123-124,129,134,

138

Ambac 474-75

American Monetary Institute (AMI)

American Monetary Act 373, 397American Revolution 14,19,42,48,

84,101, 224, 225, 341, 388"American system" of economics

51, 55, 80, 86, 230, 249, 460Argentina, hyperinflation in

243, 348Aristotle 60

Asian crisis of 1997-98 209, 212, 252

Asian Monetary Fund (AMF) 253

Augustin, Chuck 316

Auriti, Giacinto 342

Australia, Commonwealth Bank 414

B

Bacon, Sir Francis 35

Bagley, R. Colt 301

bailout of banks 331, 417, 419, 456,

468-69, 477Baker, Dean 423Bamford, James 205Bank of America 468m 477Bank of England

36, 40, 65, 68, 69, 71, 72, 73, 394,

468-69

Bank of Japan 251, 385, 386Bank of the United States. See United

States BankBank of the United States, Second 77Bankers Manifesto of 1892 107Bankers Manifesto of 1934 149

banking, central 72, 88,124, 259banking, commercial 213,330,400, 411, 418, 419, 457banking, community 346investment 177,329, 330, 401,457

Islamic 399, 401

money center 185,329,330

national 93, 225, 259, 393, 426BankOne 128, 326bankruptcy 280, 348

Code, revision of 280

corporate 281

of banks 325, 333, 419, 455Barings Bank 470Barnard, Harvey 365Basic Income Guarantee 428Baum, L. Frank 11, 109, 337Bear Stearns 323,465-66Berkshire Farm Preserve Notes 350Bernanke, Ben 382-384,421Biddle, Nicholas 80, 81Bilderbergers 129, 130, 309Bismarck, Otto von 91, 93Bohnsack, Ken 432Bolser, Michael 313, 315, 321Bonus Bill 111

Boyko, Christopher 299,476,478Bretton Woods

Accords 438, 443, 445

Conference 129, 207gold standard 207British East India Company 66"British system" of Economics 51,80,

223, 225Bromsgrove Group 432Brouillet, Carol 353Bryan, William Jennings 7,11,13,15,

16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 112, 393Buffett, Warren 189,281, 331

521

Bureau of Engraving and Printing 73

Burien, Walter 433

Burr, Aaron 54

Bush, George H.W. 468

business cycle 288, 451, 454

Butler, Smedley 160

Byrne, Partick 188, 330

c

CAFRs (Comprehensive Annual

Financial Reports) 433Cahn, Edgar 350Caldicott, Helen 268Canadian Action Party 432"capital flight" 211carbon credits 351Carey, Henry 85,223, 225,230,249

263, 389Carey, Matthew 51, 85Caribbean pirates 369Carlyle Group 104Carmack, Patrick 60,398Carnegie, Andrew 118, 137, 338Carribean pirates 388carry trade 413Cayman Islands 192, 322CDO. See collateralized debt

obligationscentral banking 72, 259Channel Islands, money system 100Chase Manhattan Bank 54, 120, 127Chase, Salmon P. 94, 95,120Chicago Federal Reserve 171-176China 99, 257-265, 270, 411Chinese renminbi 258, 264Chossudovsky, Michel 5,220, 253Citibank 24, 196, 302, 331, 421Citigroup 128, 305, 326,475,477Civil War, U. S. 19,91,95,120,121,

123

Clay, Henry 51, 57, 79, 80,83, 85,86Cleveland, President Grover 15,16Clinton, Hillary 470Coinage Act of 1792 365

Cold War 228

collateralized debt obligations

(CDOs) 397,465-66,478commercial banking. See banking,

commercialCommodities Futures Trading

Commission 193Communist Party 227community currencies 347-356,390compound interest 32,410

chart 32Confederacy 89

Congress 8,12,45,48, 75-84,93,96,

371, 378, 388, 457-460Constitution, U.S. 48,50,55, 78,95

309, 393, 451Constitutional Convention 48Consumer Price Index 444, 445, 448Continental Congress 43Continental currency 43, 44, 45, 48Continental Illinois, bankruptcy of

420, 421

Countrywide Financial 466, 468-69,472

Cook, Chris 400

Cook, Richard 428

corporations 102

Corrigan, Sean 199

Council on Foreign Relations 129

Counterparty Risk Management

Policy Group (CRMPG) 318, 453Countrywide Financial 466Coxey'sArmy 12,14,108, 110,

155, 234, 279, 446Cramer, Jim 472

credit card 277, 282, 283, 284, 412credit card debt 282, 422credit clearing exchange 443credit default swap 471,474Crime of'73 18, 95, 112CRMPG report 320Cromwell, James 63, 67, 70Crudelejohn 312, 313Currency Act of 1764 41

522

currency board 244currency exchange rates 209, 212,220, 239, 453

basket of commodities standard442

Bretton Woods gold standard207

Consumer Price Index standard444, 448

floating currencies 209pegged to dollar 211, 216renminbi 260

D

Daly, Jerome 28-30

Damon, Frank 258

Dann, Marc 478

Daughty, Richard 307

Day of Jubilee 435

de Fremery, Robert 396

debt, Federal. See federal debt

debt, household, chart 286

debt, state and local 432

debt-free money 12,14,20,88,95,96,

148,153, 371, 382, 426, 428, 431,Declaration of Independence 334,

338

deflation 384, 419, 430Del Mar, Alexander 42, 66Democratic Party 86Democratic Republicans 54Denmark 411depository 402, 404Depository Trust and Clearing

Corporation (DTCC) 186, 187Depression, Great 13,42,85,127,141,

144,146,147,151,153,180,181,

187,197, 203, 229, 347, 360, 385,

405

derivatives 3, 191-197,209, 301-306, 309, 327, 421-24, 438,446, 470, 475derivatives crisis

301, 304, 305, 306, 459Deutsche Bank, 299,476-77devaluation of currency 210,

239, 243, 244, 246, 247

of Argentine peso 243

of Mexican peso 216

of Zimbabwe currency. 247DiLorenzo, Thomas 85Dinar, Gold 446

Dow Jones Industrial Average 181,308, 451, 466chart 381

E

Eccles, Marriner 32,372Ecuador 439Edison 88, 224El Salvador 439Embry,John 316Emergency Powers Act 309Emry, Sheldon 47, 237,347Engdahl, William 206, 215, 241,242,

251,266equity market 178Exchange Stabilization Fund (ESF)

317

F

Fannie Mae (Federal NationalMortgate Association) 295-299,326

farm parity pricing 460

FDIC (Federal Deposit InsuranceCorporation) 144,145,199,328,333, 404, 416, 419, 420, 421, 426,432, 453, 459, 460, 468

FDIC receivership

144, 333, 404, 420, 456, 458

Feder, Gottfried 235

"Feder money" 234,238

federal debt 4,6,23,33,100,139,154,155,164,199, 262, 286, 307, 366-382, 394, 399, 405, 406, 411, 426,

523

428, 452, 453, 457, 458, 460chart 368

debt per person, chart 369Federal income tax

133, 135, 136, 138, 426, 452Federal Reserve, U.S. 23,26,29,32

123-129, 141-146, 148, 155-176,394

ownership of 129-131Federal Reserve Act of 1913 8,25,

134, 332, 458

Federal Reserve Bank of New York24, 127,142,163,166,174

Federal Reserve Notes 3, 26, 73,94,162,169, 365

Federalist Debates 133

Federalist Papers 50

Federalists 54

Fekete, Antal 208

FEMA (Federal Emergency Manage-ment Agency) 309fiat 60

fiat money 60,61,85,89,165,208,233, 234, 235, 250, 390, 426, 440,453

First National Bank of Montgomery

vs. Daly 28Fitts, Catherine Austin 278, 308,434floating exchange rates. See currency

exchange ratesFord Motor Corporation 304foreclosures, home 28,29,107,148,

151, 288, 290, 294, 311, 412, 429,

455

Foreclose, standing to 299

Forum for Stable Currencies 432

fractional reserve 30

Fractional Reserve Banking 332

fractional reserve banking

26, 27, 28, 69, 166, 174, 208,332, 358, 396, 398, 431, 452

fractional reserve lending 451

Franklin, Benjamin 36, 37, 40,260, 403, 407, 414

Freddie Mac (Federal National

Mortgage Association) 295,298Free Coinage Act of 1666 67free market 453

free trade 51, 86, 223, 230, 454Freeman, Richard 295, 322French Revolution 73Friedman, Milton 208, 384, 426Friendly Favors 352full dollarization 439Fuller, Buckminster 339

G

Galbraith, John Kenneth 32, 266

Galbraith, James 7

Garfield, James 96

GATA (Gold Anti-Trust Action

Committee) 315,469General Motors, bankruptcy of 304George, David Lloyd 66Germany 91, 233, 235, 236, 237, 263Gibson, Donald 204Gilded Age 95, 97, 118, 121, 123Glass-Steagall Act 159,177, 193,

329, 472, 475Global Exchange Network 348globalization 229, 454Glover, Paul 349gold price, chart 346gold standard 8,13-15,17-19, 21,

86, 92, 97, 98, 101, 102,

203, 223, 452Goldbugs 357-361Goldman Sachs 104,197, 218, 305,

308, 315, 316, 318, 475-77Good Roads Bill 110Goodwin, Jason 36Grameen Bank of Bangladesh 345,

413

Grant, Uysses S. 249Greco, Tom 353,443Greenback dollar 85, 87, 88, 89, 92-

96, 407Greenback Law of 1878 205

524

Greenback Party 13,95, 111Greenback proposal 20Greenbackers 13,15,96,235,357, 358Greenspan, Alan 23, 295, 318,319370, 383

Griffin, Ed 145, 165,226,227,373,420

Grillot, Greg 260

gross domestic product (GDP) 269gross national product (GNP) 269guaranteed basic income 428Guernsey 100, 101,247,380Guttman, Robert 327, 401

H

Hamilton, Alexander 42,48,49-55,

369, 375Hanna, Marcus 15, 18, 19, 112Harvey, William Hope 111, 146,148,

149, 365Hazard Circular 92Heavily Indebted Poor Country

Initiative (HIPC) 436hedge funds 191-193,196,197, 323,

465

Hemphill, Robert H. 5,155,156,160Hepburn v. Griswold 95Hitler, Adolf 234-36,238Hoeflejohn 193,

197, 302, 325, 422, 465Hogan's Heroes 111home ownership 107, 285, 286Homeland Security Act 309Homestead Act 84Homestead Laws 144, 288Hoskins, Richard 61, 63housing bubble 286, 290, 455housing crisis, possible solution 295,

306, 429Hudson, Michael 290Hummel, William 30, 173,329,330,

399,402, 403,405Hurricane Katrina 309, 313Hylan, John 1,116

hyperinflation 218, 219, 230, 237-244,246,247,263,306,347,379, 388,429

I

IMF. See International MonetaryFund.

"IMF riot" 309

income tax 3,4,100,133-139, 295,

344, 366, 382, 416, 426-428, 453,

458, 459India 265-72

farmer suicides 271Industrial Revolution 62inflation 4, 88, 97, 98,100, 260, 262

425, 454. See hyperinflation.

chart 103Ingraham, Jane 217interest 31, 354, 406, 407

interest rates 213, 294

interest-free banking 411International Monetary Fund

129, 207, 210, 213, 217, 219, 229,

240-242, 244-47, 252-254, 267,

269, 277, 348, 436, 453investment banking. See banking.Iran 370,410-11

Iranian oil bourse 306Iraq 58, 368

Islamic banking 354, 410-11, 446Ithaca HOUR 349, 350

J

J. P. Morgan 119, 120, 122

J. P. Morgan Chase Company 24,

305, 316, 319, 326J. P. Morgan Chase Bank 197,302,

421

Jackson, Frank 477Jackson, Andrew 1, 75, 76, 79,80-83Japan 249, 250-253, 385-388Jefferson, Thomas 50,52,54, 75, 76

78, 79Jekyll Island 422

525

Johnson, Chalmers 250, 252Johnson, Lyndon 205Juilliard v. Greenman 95

K

Kennedy, John F. 204,266

Kerensky, Alexander 226

Keynes, John Maynard 99,152,153,

154, 156, 207, 427Keynesian economic theory 153King Charles I 67King Charles II 67King George II 40King George III 40, 47King Henry I 61King Henry VIII 66King James II 65King William III 66, 67, 69Kirby, Rob 306,369,370Kirchner, Nestor 245Kissinger, Henry 210,217, 309Knox, Philander 137,138Knox v.Lee 95Komp, Lothar 304Krugman, Paul 281Kucinich, Dennis 432Kuhn, Loeb & Co. 120,123,226Kuttner, Robert 473

L

land banks 38, 48,414Langrick, Roger 408, 434LaRouche, Lyndon 193,445Law, John 71, 72Lee, Barbara 432legal tender 36,369Legal Tender Acts 87,88,95LETS (Local Exchange Trading

System) 351-53, 403, 406Leverage 191Lewis, Dave 331,421Liberty Dollar 343, 344Lietaer, Bernard 31,57, 211,350,

351, 444

Lincoln, Abraham 8,14, 79,82,83,87-89, 91-93, 96,103, 258

Lindbergh, Charles, Sr., 107,124,126,139

Linton, Michael 351,403

Littlefield,Henryll,17

Liu, Henry C. K. 2,212,216,220

236, 247, 259, 261, 263, 310, 327local currencies 347-349, 350, 355Local Exchange Trading System

(LETS) 351London Global Table 432Long Term Capital Management

(LTCM) 304, 318, 325,468Lord,Eleazar 101, 203LTCM 304Lub, Sergio 352

M

M3 26, 33,154,164, 295, 305, 306,308, 324, 340, 360, 370, 375, 376,388, 426

cessation of reporting of 305

growth in, 307Madison, James 77Mahathir, Mohamad 254, 255,446,

447

Mahoney, Martin 29

Makow, Henry 236

Malaysia 254

Mandarin China 61

Mandell, Betty Reid 415

manipulation of markets 180,188,

189,193, 208, 246, 320, 381, 405,

454, 458, 459margin, trading on 191Mark, Christopher 6"market basket" standard for valuing

currencies 443market maker 185, 186market manipulation 453Martin, Al 273, 295, 309, 368Marxist theory 225, 230Massachusetts, colony of 36

526

MasterCard 128, 284, 422Mather, Cotton 37Matlack, Carol 470MBIA 474-75

MBS. See mortgage-backed securities.McFadden, Louis 155,158-160McKinley, William 16, 19,112Meiji Revolution of 1868 249Merrill Lynch 475,477-78Mexico 215-220

bailout of 1994 218peso devaluation 218Middle Ages 59, 60, 62, 63Milosevic, Slobodan 242Minnesota bridge collapse 469Mississippi bubble 72MITI (Japanese Ministry of Interna-tional Trade and Industry) 250"Modern Money Mechanics" 26

171, 283monetary reform 20, 394, 446monetization of debt 307, 369, 454money center banks 329money supply 25, 405, 426monoline insurers 474moral hazard 316, 320, 456Morgan, J. P. 15,18,24,118-122,422Morgan, House of 7, 119, 120mortgage debt 107, 286mortgage defaults 295, 298mortgage-backed securities (MBS)

288, 295, 297, 326, 399, 429Mozilo, Angelo 472Murphy, Bill 313

N

NAFTA 217, 218national banking. See banking.National Banking Act of 1863-64 93national credit

86, 221, 258, 263, 357national debt. See federal debt.National Dividend 249,428,433

National Economic Stabilization and

Recovery Act (NESARA) 365National Republican Party 83, 86negative trade balance 210, 257Neoconervatives 228NESARA. See National Economic

Stabilization and Recovery Act."New Currency" 444New Deal 85New England colonies 39New World Order 129, 272, 273New Zealand Democratic Party for

Social Credit 432Nixon, President 203, 206, 208Noninterest-Bearing Bonds Bill 110NORFED (National Organization for

the Repeal of the Federal Reserve

Act and the Internal Revenue

Code) 343, 344Norman, Montagu 142North, Gary 289Northern Rock 467-78Novak, Gary 194, 303NWO (New World Order) 272,273,

317, 430, 461

o

Olender, Sean 475-76

One Hundred Percent Reserve

Solution 396-399, 403,405OPEC (Organization of the Petroleum

Exporting Countries) 210, 266open market operations 458Operation Northwoods 205Opium Wars 18, 223, 247, 249, 257

P

Paine, Thomas 43, 225Palast, Greg 270Panic of 1907 124Parker, David 337Parliament, British 67, 70

527

Parrington, Vernon

49, 85, 97, 102, 357Paterson, William 68, 71Patman, Wright 24-26, 32, 111, 116,

120,156,161,162,164,168Patriot Act 309Paul, Ron 344,468Paulson, Henry 308, 315, 318, 475-

76

payday loans 282

pegging of currencies. See currency

exchange rates.Price Index, Consumer 444Pennsylvania, colonial, money

system 39, 411,413,430People's Bank of China 258Peron, Juan 243Petras, James 104petrodollars 213Philadelphia Centennial of 1876

224, 258Pilger, John 368Plunge Protection Team (PPT)

312, 314-17, 320, 388, 453, 465,

468, 470

Ponzi scheme 72, 220, 327, 330

populism 103

Populist Party 111

Populists 7,11,15,16, 95,109,460

Powell, Chris 469

PPT. See Plunge Protection Team.

privatization 229, 268, 415

Q

Quantity Theory of Money 98,262

Queen Elizabeth I 66

Queen Mary 66

Quigley, Carroll 1,2,143,200

R

Rabushka, Alvin 38Ralter, Peter 468

"real bills," Real Bills Doctrine 364,365, 413, 433

528

Real Estate Mortgage Investment

Conduit (REMIC) 296reflation 385Renaissance 62

repurchase agreement (repo) 315reserve currency, dollar as 213Resumption Act of 1875 96Robber Barons 25,117,118,120

128, 130, 131, 142, 338, 418, 422Robertson, James 395Rockefeller, John D. 18,25,117-122

207, 422Rockefeller, David 129,207,321Rockoff,HughllRoosevelt, Franklin D. 20, 116,

151, 152, 154-160Roosevelt, Teddy 112, 113, 116,Rothbard, Murray 7,112,419Rothschild, Amschel 77Rothschild, House of 76, 77,91,93,

120

Rothschild, Nathan 65, 77Rowbotham, Michael 20,197,210,

437, 442, 445Roy, Arundhati 108Rubin, Robert 218, 315Ruble 239,240

Russell, Richard 341, 383, 417Russia 224-231, 239, 240, 242, 325

Russian Revolution 226

ruble, collapse of 240

s

Salomon Brothers 331savings and loan association,collapse of 289, 325, 331Schacht, Hjalmar 237Schicht 1, 129, 188, 207, 321, 418Schiff, Jacob 120, 226scrip, colonial 38,40, 41,43,48,49,SDRs. See Special Drawing Rights.Securities Act of 1933 159, 184, 188Shays Rebellion 49, 360Sherman Act 118

Web of Debt

Shiva, Vendana 271

shock therapy 229, 240, 278

short selling 183-189

naked short selling 184-188, 330silver certificates, U.S. Treasury 205Silverites 15, 112Simons, Henry 396Sinclair, Jim 317,471Single Currency Solution 439Sixteenth Amendment 134, 136-

138, 453, 459slavery 92

Small Business Administration (SBA)414

Smith, Adam 51,115,364

Social Security crisis 377

Societe Generale 470

Soddy, Frederick 396

Soros, George 196

sovereign credit 221, 263

Sovereignty Loans 432

Special Drawing Rights (SDRs) 207,

440,461speculation in currencies 220

colonial 44, 49Sperry, Paul 23spider webbing 1,129,188stagflation 293Stamp, Josiah 2Standard Oil 18, 119, 121Stephanopoulos, George 313Stiglitz, Joseph 255Still, Bill 60, 65stock market 311, 380stock market crash 141, 143structural adjustment 229,267subprime debt 32,177,178,282,289,

290, 299, 323, 397, 429, 475Sumer, ancient 58SunYat-Sen 257, 260Sweden 411,414

T

Taft, William Howard 125,138tally system 61, 63, 69, 73, 363tax 38, 41, 262, 408,425,451, 459on derivatives 422-425,430on income, see federal income taxTequila Trap 215, 216, 218, 220, 221,

241, 247Tesla, Nikola 122London Global 432theosophical movement 16, 109Third World debt 200,212,213, 311435

elimination of 436,446Thorn, Victor 6Tobintax 423Towers, Graham 5trade deficit 208,214,234,278,387,

438, 447Treaty of Versailles 233, 237Trilateral Commission 129Trotsky, Leon 228trusts 113, 118, 121

u

U.S. Postal Savings System 401, 414U.S. Steel 118Ukraine 242

unemployment statistics 427UNICEF 268

United States Bank, First 53, 75, 76United States Bank, Second 77,81United States Notes 85, 205usury 31, 41, 59, 62, 73, 354usury banks 73

V

Venezuela 370

Vietnam, real estate market 359Visa 128, 284, 422Volcker,Paul213, 420

529

Index

Voorhis, Jerry 164,168,169,396"vulture capitalism" 455vulture funds 246

w

Walker, David M. 34, 277, 367Wall Street 7,15-19, 73,93,104,119,

122,159, 204, 424Wallenstein, Alex 321Wanniski, Jude 218, 228, 229War of 1812 77Weimar Republic 237Wells Fargo Bank 477-78Weisbrot, Mark 229,245,252Weiss, Martin 301,421Whalen, Chris 471Whigs 83

White, Harry Dexter 207Whitney, Mike 278, 290,368,456,

472, 478Wiggin, Addison 321Williams, John 426Wilson, Woodrow 125Working Group on Financial Markets

312, 314World Bank

129, 207, 210, 212, 271, 437World Constitution and Parliament

Association 440World Trade Center 119, 205World Trade Organization (WTO)

209, 267, 270-72World War II 207

Y

Z

Zarlenga, Stephen 42,44, 53,61, 66,88, 89, 94, 235, 237, 355, 358, 373,396, 397

Ziaukas, Tim 11, 17

Zimbabwe 246

Zinn, Howard 108,130

Yugoslavia 241, 242Yunus, Mohammad 413

530